美国诉伯恩斯:死刑和引渡外文翻译资料

 2022-12-07 16:26:30

United States v. Burns: death and extradition

McLaughlin Dino

The respondents are each wanted on three counts of aggravated first degree murder in the State of Washington. If found guilty, they will face either the death penalty or life in prison without the possibility of parole. The respondents are both Canadian citizens and were 18 years old when the father, mother and sister of the respondent Rafay were found bludgeoned to death in their home in Bellevue, Washington, in July 1994. Both Burns and Rafay, who had been friends at high school in British Columbia, admit that they were at the Rafay home on the night of the murders. They claim to have gone out on the evening of July 12, 1994 and when they returned, they say, they found the bodies of the three murdered Rafay family members. Thereafter, the respondents returned to Canada. As a result of investigative work by undercover RCMP officers, they were eventually arrested. The Attorney General of British Columbia decided against a prosecution in that province. United States authorities commenced proceedings to extradite the respondents to the State of Washington for trial. The Minister of Justice for Canada, after evaluating the respondentsrsquo; particular circumstances, including their age and their Canadian nationality, ordered their extradition pursuant to s. 25 of the Extradition Act without seeking assurances from the United States under Article 6 of the extradition treaty between the two countries that the death penalty would not be imposed, or, if imposed, would not be carried out. The British Columbia Court of Appeal, in a majority decision, ruled that the unconditional extradition order would violate the mobility rights of the respondents under s. 6(1) of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Court of Appeal therefore set aside the Ministerrsquo;s decision and directed him to seek assurances as a condition of surrender.

Held: The appeal should be dismissed.

Section 25 of the Extradition Act creates a broad ministerial discretion whether to surrender a fugitive, and if so, on what terms. While constitutionally valid, the Ministerrsquo;s discretion is limited by the Charter. The authority of the Minister under s. 25 is predicated on the existence of an extradition treaty. In respect of seeking assurances under Article 6 of the treaty, the Minister took the position that assurances were not to be sought routinely in every case in which the death penalty was applicable; such assurances should be sought only in circumstances where the particular facts of the case warranted that special exercise of discretion. Although it is generally for the Minister, not the court, to assess the weight of competing considerations in extradition policy, the availability of the death penalty opens up a different dimension. Death penalty cases are uniquely bound up with basic constitutional values and the court is the guardian of the Constitution.

The death penalty is a justice issue and is only marginally a mobility rights issue. Section 6(1) of the Charter, standing alone, does not invalidate an extradition without assurances. Although extradition is a prima facie infringement of the s. 6(1) right of every Canadian citizen to “remain in” Canada, efforts to stretch mobility rights to cover the death penalty controversy are misplaced.

Nor is s. 12 of the Charter (“cruel and unusual treatment or punishment”) the most appropriate head of relief. The Charter guarantees certain rights and freedoms from infringement by “the Parliament and government of Canada” and “the legislature and government of each province” (s. 32(1)). The Canadian government would not itself inflict capital punishment, although its decision to extradite without assurances would be a necessary link in the chain of causation to that potential result. However, the degree of causal remoteness between the extradition order to face trial and the potential imposition of capital punishment as one of many possible outcomes to this prosecution makes this a case more appropriately reviewed under s. 7 of the Charter. The values underlying various sections of the Charter, including s. 12, form part of the balancing process engaged in under s. 7.

Section 7 (“fundamental justice”) applies because the extradition order would, if implemented, deprive the respondents of their rights of liberty and security of the person since their lives are potentially at risk. The issue is whether the threatened deprivation is in accordance with the principles of fundamental justice. Section 7 is concerned not only with the act of extradition, but also with its potential consequences.The balancing process set out in Kindler and Ng is the proper analytical approach. The “shocks the conscience” language signals the possibility that even though the rights of the fugitive are to be considered in the context of other applicable principles of fundamental justice, which are normally of sufficient importance to uphold the extradition, a particular treatment or punishment may sufficiently violate our sense of fundamental justice as to tilt the balance against extradition. The rule is not that departures from fundamental justice are to be tolerated unless in a particular case it shocks the conscience. An extradition that violates the principles of fundamental justice will always shock the conscience.

The important inquiry is to determine what constitutes the applicable principles of fundamental justice in the extradition context. The outcome of the appeal turns on an appreciation of these principles, which in turn are derived from the basic tenets of our legal system. While these basic tenets have not changed since 1991 when Kindler and Ng were decided, their application 10 years later must take note of factual developments in Canada and in relevant foreign jurisdictions.

In this case, it is said that a number of factors favour extradition without assura

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译文

美国诉伯恩斯:死刑和引渡

犯罪嫌疑人是被美国华盛顿州以三项一级谋杀罪名通缉的。如果被判有罪,他们可能将面临死刑或终身监禁,并不得假释。犯罪嫌疑人都是加拿大公民,1994年7月被告Rafay 18岁的时候,被发现将自己的父亲,母亲和妹妹杀死在华盛顿州的贝尔维尤的家里。伯恩斯和Rafay他们在不列颠哥伦比亚省读高中时已经成为朋友了,他们承认自己在谋杀当天晚上在Rafay家里出现过。他们声称在1994年7月12日的晚上出去了。他们辩称当他们回来时,他们看到了Rafay三个被谋杀家庭成员的尸体。此后,犯罪嫌疑人返回加拿大。因为一个加拿大皇家骑警卧底人员的侦查结果,他们最终被捕了。不列颠哥伦比亚省的总检察长决定在该省起诉他们其中的一个人。美国当局展开法律程序引渡犯罪嫌疑人到华盛顿州接受审判。加拿大司法部长评估受访者的具体情况,包括他们的年龄和他们的加拿大国籍,根据引渡法第25条和两国之间的双边引渡条约规定作出命令指示,要求美国承诺保证他们不会被判处死刑,或即使判处死刑也不执行。不列颠哥伦比亚省上诉法院的多数人意见决定,裁定无条件引渡令将违反加拿大权利和自由宪章第6条第1款,侵犯引渡的犯罪嫌疑人的权利。因此,上诉法院推翻该部长的决定,并指示他要寻求作为移交的条件保证。

判决:上诉应予驳回。

在引渡法第25条形成了强大的部长级酌情决定是否交出逃犯,和如果要交出是在什么条件下。宪法有效,但部长的决定是有限的宪章。引渡法25条下部长的权力是基于一个引渡条约的存在。在寻求根据条约第6条的保证方面,部长都认为要保证不寻求在每一个案件中经常适用死刑的立场,这样的保证的情况下,应寻求只有在特定的事实特别情况下保证行使酌情权。虽然这是一般的部长,而不是法庭,评估对引渡政策竞争的考虑,为死刑的可用性开辟了不同的道路。死刑案件具有独特的约束与宪法基本价值观念和法院是宪法的捍卫者。

死刑是关于一个最低限度地迁移权利的司法问题。宪章的第6条第1款,孤立的没有保证的引渡有效。尽管引渡表面上看是侵犯了每一个加拿大公民“留在”加拿大的权利,尽力保护包括死刑犯的迁移权利,死刑的争议是不必要的。

也不是宪章第12条(“残酷和不寻常的待遇或处罚”)的最适当的救济。该宪章保障由“加拿大议会和政府”和“立法机构和各省政府”(第32(1)条)侵犯某些权利和自由。加拿大政府本身不会造成死刑,尽管其决定不引渡的保证将是一个因果关系链中的产生这种结果的必要环节。但是,死刑和引渡之间因果关系偏远,面对审判,死刑作为对这次起诉多种可能的结果之一可能使这个案件根据宪章第7条实行更恰当审查。该基本宪章各部分基本价值观下,包括第12条和第7条之间的平衡过程。

第7条(“基本正义”)适用与引渡是因为,如果执行,剥夺自由和人身安全的权利的受访者,因为他们的生命受到潜在危险。问题在于剥夺的威胁与正义的基本原则是一致的。第7条不仅与引渡的行为有关,也有其潜在后果。金德勒和伍之间的引渡权衡要有适当的分析方法。在“震撼良知”的意思表示,即使在逃亡时,权利也应符合其他适用原则的基本正义,通常情况下,坚持引渡有其足够的重要性的,一个特定的范围内审议的待遇或处罚的可能性可能充分违反我们的基本正义感,以倾斜反对引渡的平衡。该规则没有与基本正义原则相分离,可以容忍的是在特定情况下,除非它冲击良心,违反基本正义的原则的引渡将永远震撼良知。

最重要的调查是确定哪些是在引渡方面构成了基本的司法适用的原则。上诉的结果适用了这些原则,而这又使从我们的法律制度的基本原则得到重视。虽然这些基本原则自1991年金德勒和伍被决定引渡以来并没有改变,10年后,他们的申请必须关注加拿大和有关的外国司法管辖区的实际发展情况。

在这种情况下,有人说,一些因素有利于保证不引渡:(1)被指控犯罪的个人应受到审判,以确认真相,担心如果是保证是寻求和拒绝,加拿大政府可能面临的可能性,即受访者可能完全回避了审判;(2)最好通过司法审判中的犯罪地涉嫌和有害的影响实行管辖;(3)个人选择离开加拿大放弃加拿大法律和程序,一般必须接受当地法律约束,外国程序和处罚适用于本国居民;(四)引渡是根据友好和公平的原则与其他合作国相互援助,提供逃犯的司法互助,使逃犯绳之以法,受限于必须能够使逃犯在请求国接受公正的审判的原则。

只有保证条款是有利于保证引渡的对抗性因素。第一,在加拿大,死刑已被否决,作为刑事司法的可接受的一小部分。死刑是禁止残酷和不寻常处罚的规定的基本价值观。这是最终的和不可逆转的。它的强迫接受已被描述为武断的,其威慑价值受到质疑。第二,在国际层面上,废除死刑已成为加拿大一个主要的倡议,成为世界民主国家越来越最共同关注的问题。加拿大对无保证的引渡倡议的国际反对,其对本身的废除死刑的国际宣传相结合的支持下,得出的结论,在加拿大的基本正义看来,死刑是不公正的,应该加以制止。虽然没有建立一个反对死刑的国际法律规范,或反对引渡面对死刑,但它显著的运动,并接受国际司法的基本原则。加拿大已经采取了内部废除死刑的国际经验从而证实了在加拿大议会对有关死刑问题的有效性。它也表明,一个要求在保证获得前引渡死刑案件的规定与加拿大在国际层面上的原则主张不仅符合,而且是与其他国家的做法和加拿大一般是比较一致的,除了在美国保留死刑的司法管辖区。

第三,几乎所有的司法管辖区把死刑案件的逃犯的个人特点当作缓解因素。加拿大批准,禁止对犯罪时年龄18岁以下的个人执行死刑,新的引渡法允许在某些情况下,部长有权拒绝交出在犯罪时不满18岁的人,支持的结论是对未成年人的宽松度是司法当局可接纳的价值观。因此,尽管受访者在犯罪时18岁,他们比较年轻,构成在这种情况下,酌情减轻,虽然这是有限的。

第四,自从金德勒和伍被判决,更加关注潜在的错判是增加压力的因素。避免对无辜的人定罪和惩罚一直走在“我们的法律制度的基本原则”的最前沿。对于在加拿大和美国最近的错判谋杀和持续披露的悲剧证明了法律制度的不可靠,尽管它为无罪的人提供了精心的保障。这个历史的经验强烈反对引渡时没有保证逃犯因谋杀罪被保留死刑的国家力争判死刑,除非在我们自己的法律制度等方面的有类似保证。

第五,“死牢现象”是无保证拒绝引渡的另一个因素。最终判决死刑与刑事司法系统的决心相结合,尽量证明司法机关的定罪是没有不适当的,不可避免地会产生长期拖延,以及相关的死囚犯的心理创伤,其中许多人最终可能被证明是无辜的。“死囚现象”不是第7条的一个可控制因素,但是那些把惨状加于自身的认为认这是一个相关的考虑因素。

支持和反对引渡的因素没有保证必须平衡在第7条下。寻求没有保证而引渡的先进的目标是同样保证引渡。揭发受访者被加拿大政府提前死刑执行但最终在监狱中自然死亡的说法是不能令人信服。其他没有废除死刑国家,在一般情况下保证不引渡。

受访者的引渡没有保证不能证明合乎宪章第一部分。虽然推进打击犯罪互助政府的目标是完全合法的,部长没有解释受访者的引渡死刑未经保证是必须实现这一目标的。没有任何证据的表明,为保证要求会损害加拿大的国际义务,或伤害与邻国的友好关系。加拿大和美国的引渡条约明确提出保证要求,并且加拿大充分遵守其国际义务。同时,虽然国际刑事执法,包括需要确保加拿大不会成为危险逃犯的“避风港”这个合法的目的,没有任何证据表明被引渡到面对没有释放或假释的终身监禁对那些寻求没有死刑的“安全港”的罪犯提供了一个较小的威慑。无论逃犯返回到外国去面对死刑或面临监狱最终由自然原因引起的死亡,他们同样被阻止将加拿大作为“避风港”。 “避风港”消除逃犯取决于这个国家严格的法律实施,而不是对逃亡国外后被外国施加死刑。

回顾支持和反对无条件的引渡审查的因素,因此得出的结论是,保证是本质上的要求,除了特殊的情况。这种情况下不出现必须所示的例外情况。在金德勒和伍的案例中倾斜与赞成没有保证引渡的现在倾向于反对这样的结果是否符合宪法。

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