附录B 外文原文
Geographic information systems and science: today and tomorrow
Michael F. Goodchild
University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-4060, USA
Abstract
Geographic information is defined as information linking locations on or near the Earthrsquo;s surface to properties of those locations. The technologies for handling such information include GPS, remote sensing, and geographic information systems. Behind the technologies are a set of fundamental, researchable issues whose study has been termed geographic information science. I review these technologies under four headings: positioning, data acquisition, data dissemination, and analysis. Recent research has led to substantial advances in specific areas of GIScience. I outline five future scenarios that are all technically feasible given current technology, and discuss the research advances that will be needed to make them a reality. In the conclusion I comment on the changing needs of education in geographic information systems and science.
Keywords: Geographic information system; remote sensing; geographic information science; GPS
1 Introduction
Over the past four decades massive progress has been made in developing and implementing tools that acquire, store, analyze, and share geographic information—that is, information describing the characteristics of specified locations on the Earthrsquo;s surface. More formally, geographic information can be defined as instances or aggregations of primitive atomic tuples of the form lt;x,zgt; where x defines a location on or near the Earthrsquo;s surface, and may include the temporal dimension, and z defines one or more attributes of that location. Goodchild, Cova, and Yuan [1] have shown how this fundamental form underlies all of the myriad formats of geographic information that are now in widespread use.
The technologies that have been developed for handling such information include systems for acquiring imagery from aircraft or space, otherwise known as remote-sensing systems; the Global Positioning System(GPS) and other technologies for determining location; and most generally geographic information systems(GIS), an umbrella term for tools designed for processing, analysis, modeling, and storage. These technologies began to emerge in the 1960s, and now constitute a large and growing industrial sector.
In the past two decades it has become apparent that such geospatial technologies raise issues of fundamental significance, and that these issues form a domain of science whose discoveries provide the basis for the technologies. This science is variously known as geographic information science(GIScience;[2]), geospatial science, geoinformatics, geomatics, and spatial science. Much progress has been made in GIScience, which is now widely recognized as a research field and a well-defined subset of information science.
In this paper I first review recent progress in geographic information technologies. The second major section then examines recent progress in GIScience and sketches a number of scenarios for the state of the technologies in ten years. It also addresses the challenges these developments present to education, and the developments that will need to occur if the educational system is to respond effectively to them. The paper ends with some brief concluding points.
2 The Geospatial Technologies
Technological developments have always provided much of the impetus for the expansion and adoption of the geospatial technologies. Four sets of developments seem to have been particularly important in recent years, and they are reviewed in the following subsections.
2.1 Positioning
The completion of the GPS in the 1980s, and the permanent removal of Selective Availability in the 1990s, opened the way to its widespread adoption both as a military system, its original purpose, and as a basis for a suite of consumer products. Today GPS is widely used as a cheap, reliable system for determining location to a few meters, and to better than a meter in specialized versions. GPS can be embedded in mobile phones, personal digital assistants, and even wristwatches, and today GPS has largely replaced the traditional, cumbersome technologies of the past. In turn GPS has led to an explosion of services based on it, including live feeds of positional information over the Web. Thus it has become routine for travelers to be able to access sites showing the real-time positions of buses and aircraft. GPS is now being used to integrate georeferenced data feeds from multiple sources.
For example, the Advanced Emergency GIS, a project of ESRI and the Loma Linda University Medical Center, provides an integrated view of information relevant to an emergency, including live feeds of the locations of rescue helicopters and ambulances, live feeds of video from major highways, reports of accidents, the perimeters of incidents such as wildfires, and base mapping. This information is integrated and made available to emergency managers through a standard Web browser, providing an effective and interactive synoptic view of the emergency.
Some of the sources provide feeds in standard formats, but in other cases, such as the feed from the California Department of Transportationrsquo;s incident site, it is necessary to process data before they can be displayed, in this case by scraping text to find references to locations, translating them into latitude/longitude. Such services form a service-oriented architecture, and are becoming increasingly common on the Web. Two of the most successful such services related to GIS are those that translate placenames into coordinates, and those that translate street addresses into coordinates.
Recently the development of radio-frequency identification (RFID) has provided an alternativ
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Geographic information systems and science: today and tomorrow
Michael F. Goodchild
University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-4060, USA
Abstract
Geographic information is defined as information linking locations on or near the Earthrsquo;s surface to properties of those locations. The technologies for handling such information include GPS, remote sensing, and geographic information systems. Behind the technologies are a set of fundamental, researchable issues whose study has been termed geographic information science. I review these technologies under four headings: positioning, data acquisition, data dissemination, and analysis. Recent research has led to substantial advances in specific areas of GIScience. I outline five future scenarios that are all technically feasible given current technology, and discuss the research advances that will be needed to make them a reality. In the conclusion I comment on the changing needs of education in geographic information systems and science.
Keywords: Geographic information system; remote sensing; geographic information science; GPS
1 Introduction
Over the past four decades massive progress has been made in developing and implementing tools that acquire, store, analyze, and share geographic information—that is, information describing the characteristics of specified locations on the Earthrsquo;s surface. More formally, geographic information can be defined as instances or aggregations of primitive atomic tuples of the form lt;x,zgt; where x defines a location on or near the Earthrsquo;s surface, and may include the temporal dimension, and z defines one or more attributes of that location. Goodchild, Cova, and Yuan [1] have shown how this fundamental form underlies all of the myriad formats of geographic information that are now in widespread use.
The technologies that have been developed for handling such information include systems for acquiring imagery from aircraft or space, otherwise known as remote-sensing systems; the Global Positioning System(GPS) and other technologies for determining location; and most generally geographic information systems(GIS), an umbrella term for tools designed for processing, analysis, modeling, and storage. These technologies began to emerge in the 1960s, and now constitute a large and growing industrial sector.
In the past two decades it has become apparent that such geospatial technologies raise issues of fundamental significance, and that these issues form a domain of science whose discoveries provide the basis for the technologies. This science is variously known as geographic information science(GIScience;[2]), geospatial science, geoinformatics, geomatics, and spatial science. Much progress has been made in GIScience, which is now widely recognized as a research field and a well-defined subset of information science.
In this paper I first review recent progress in geographic information technologies. The second major section then examines recent progress in GIScience and sketches a number of scenarios for the state of the technologies in ten years. It also addresses the challenges these developments present to education, and the developments that will need to occur if the educational system is to respond effectively to them. The paper ends with some brief concluding points.
2 The Geospatial Technologies
Technological developments have always provided much of the impetus for the expansion and adoption of the geospatial technologies. Four sets of developments seem to have been particularly important in recent years, and they are reviewed in the following subsections.
2.1 Positioning
The completion of the GPS in the 1980s, and the permanent removal of Selective Availability in the 1990s, opened the way to its widespread adoption both as a military system, its original purpose, and as a basis for a suite of consumer products. Today GPS is widely used as a cheap, reliable system for determining location to a few meters, and to better than a meter in specialized versions. GPS can be embedded in mobile phones, personal digital assistants, and even wristwatches, and today GPS has largely replaced the traditional, cumbersome technologies of the past. In turn GPS has led to an explosion of services based on it, including live feeds of positional information over the Web. Thus it has become routine for travelers to be able to access sites showing the real-time positions of buses and aircraft. GPS is now being used to integrate georeferenced data feeds from multiple sources.
For example, the Advanced Emergency GIS, a project of ESRI and the Loma Linda University Medical Center, provides an integrated view of information relevant to an emergency, including live feeds of the locations of rescue helicopters and ambulances, live feeds of video from major highways, reports of accidents, the perimeters of incidents such as wildfires, and base mapping. This information is integrated and made available to emergency managers through a standard Web browser, providing an effective and interactive synoptic view of the emergency.
Some of the sources provide feeds in standard formats, but in other cases, such as the feed from the California Department of Transportationrsquo;s incident site, it is necessary to process data before they can be displayed, in this case by scraping text to find references to locations, translating them into latitude/longitude. Such services form a service-oriented architecture, and are becoming increasingly common on the Web. Two of the most successful such services related to GIS are those that translate placenames into coordinates, and those that translate street addresses into coordinates.
Recently the development of radio-frequency identification (RFID) has provided an alternative positioning technolo
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