附录二：外文原文
Part I Torts in Theory
Chapter 2 Tortious Act and Tort Liability
The Concept of Tortious Act
On a mountain near the Greek town of Delphi, there stands the Temple of Apollo. The ancient Greek people deemed the temple a place to communicate with the Gods. Within the temple, there is an old slate with unknown age, bearing on it seven commandments allegedly from Gods. Among them, the most famous one is “people, know yourself! ” Indeed, how on earth can we know ourselves?
Even now, this is an unanswered question. In the eyes of people from different professions, identities, or social statuses, the view can be very different. But, in the eyes of legal scholars (particularly Tort Law scholars), a human being is more often treated as an abstract host having a set of legal rights, such as the right to life, personal rights, right to image, privacy right, etc. These rights, when added together, form a legal person.
Thus, everyone in this world is a collection of legal rights. Although these rights are complicated and may change from time to time, the common valuable effect of these rights is the endowment of autonomous power to people. It is this autonomous power that protects us as independent and free people, allows each one of us to be the owner of our own soul, and prevents outside forces to interfere with our acts or control our will. We can not only control our bodies to participate any type of activities but also manipulate our mind to travel freely in the spiritual world. We can even use our free will to not do anything. Everyone is naturally born with this autonomous power. The protection of this power is again and again confirmed by law. No one is allowed to deprive it from other people or harm it.
Any act that disturbs this autonomous power or harms peoplersquo;s legitimate rights, whetherintentionallyornegligently,isconsideredatortiousact,whichwilltriggerthe rules of correction based on damage and compensation to punish the perpetratorrsquo;s illegal act, restore the normal social and societal order, and compensate the victimrsquo;s damage. It is not difficult to see that tortious acts are the kind of acts that breach onersquo;s legal obligation, infringe on other peoplersquo;s legitimate rights, and should be punished according to the law. The purpose of studying tortious acts and creating specialized law is to establish a fair and reasonable mechanism that provides remedies and compensations to damages caused by tortious acts.
As a legal term, “tort” is a foreign concept in Chinese language. It came from the Latin term “tortus,” which means distorted or bended. French also has the term “tort,” which means hurt or fault. Thus, tortious act in nature is an improper or wrongful act and causes damage to other people. But to use it as the definition for tort is probably too broad. In fact, both criminal acts and breach of contract have similar characteristics. Then, what acts are tortious acts?
Firstly, tortious act is a kind of illegal act. Illegality is the most essential feature of tortious act, i.e., tortious acts must be against the law. Because legal acts do not violate any legal rights and obligations that may exist among people, they cannot be tortious acts. Tortious act may be due to either a breach of a specific obligation specified by law (i.e., breach of legal obligation) or a breach of a general obligation specified by a legal principle (i.e., violation of public norm or custom). Either way, as long as an act violates the law on protecting civil rights, the act has broken the authority of law and therefore is illegal.
Secondly, tortious act is a fault-based behavior. Generally, a perpetrator has certain subjective fault when committing a tortious act and therefore is morally reprehensible. It may be due to negligence, overconfidence, or even intention. Thus, most tortious acts are based on fault, and only under certain situations specified by law can tortious act be no-fault based. These situations include product liability, environmental pollution, animal attacks, etc. We should not simply think that these special situations do not require fault. A more accurate description should be “no inquiry of fault.” The purpose for not inquiring whether the defendant is at fault is to help the victim to more easily obtain remedy for his/her damage.
Thirdly, tortious act is an objective act. Tortious act is an objective act committed by a person following his/her own will. Pure mental activity without any physical doing cannot constitute tortious act. On the other hand, no matter how destructive it is, a natural disaster cannot be a tortious act as long as there is no human participation. Even when there is a human factor in it, damage caused purely by nature should be disregarded and only the remaining damage should be covered by the perpetrator. As an objective act, tortious act may be expressed in different ways. It can be a feasance act or nonfeasance act. The difference lies on the nature of legal obligation the perpetrator owed to others.
Lastly, tortious act is a harmful act. Tortious act may cause many different types of damages, but in nature they are all damages or injuries to a victimrsquo;s civil legal rights. Thus, the perpetrator must bear liability to compensate the victim whatever damage he/she has caused. When the tortious act has posed a danger to a person, that person may request the other side to eliminate the danger; when the tortious act has hindered or obstructed a person to exercise his/her rights, the person may request the other side to eliminate the hindrance; when the tortious act has caused damage or injury to a person, the person may request the other side to compensate his/her damage or injury.
According to the above, we can summarize “tortious act” as an act committed by a person with fault or without fault under certain situations specified by law, whichbreaches the personrsquo;s legal
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附录一：外文文献的中文翻译
第一部分 侵权法理论
第二章 侵权行为和侵权责任
侵权行为的概念
在希腊特尔斐小镇附近的一座山上有一间阿波罗的神殿。古希腊人认为神殿是与神沟通的地方，神殿之内,有一块未知年代的古老石板,石板上刻有据称来自于神的七诫。其中,最著名的一条是“人,认识你自己!”事实上,我们又怎么能够认识自己呢?
即使是现在,这也是一个悬而未决的问题。在来自不同职业身份、社会地位的人的眼中，视野可能非常不同。但是,在法律学者的眼中(特别是侵权法学者),一个人往往是作为一个拥有一系列合法权利的抽象的主体,如生命权、人格权、肖像权、隐私权等。这些权利,当加在一起,就形成了一个法律上的人。
因此,在这个世界上每个人都是合法权利的集合，尽管这些权利是复杂的,也可能随着时间发生改变,但这些权利的共同的有价值的效果是自治权力的养老人。正是这种自治力量,保护我们成为为独立和自由的人,让我们每个人都拥有自己的灵魂,并防止外部势力干涉或控制我们的行为。我们不仅可以控制我们的身体参与任何类型的活动,还可以让我们的心灵在精神世界自由旅行。我们甚至可以凭借我们的自由意志不做任何事。每个人都自然天生这种自治权力。这力量一次又一次的保护受法律确认。没有人可以从其他人那里剥夺它或伤害它。
任何扰乱这种自治权力或危害人们的合法权利的行为,无论是故意或者过失,被认为是侵权行为，这将触发基于损害和赔偿的修正的规则来惩罚犯罪者的违法行为,恢复正常的社会秩序和社会安定,并补偿受害者的损失。不难看出,侵权行为是这种违反法律义务,侵犯他人的合法权益,依法应当受到惩罚的行为。研究侵权行为并创立专门的法律的目的是建立一个公平合理的机制,提供补救措施和补偿侵权行为造成的损失。
作为一个法律术语,“侵权”在中国语言中是一个陌生的概念。它来自拉丁文“tortus”,意思是扭曲或弯曲。法语中也有“tort”一词，意思是伤害或错误。因此,侵权行为在本质上是一个不当或错误行为,对他人造成伤害。但是使用它作为侵权的定义太过宽泛。事实上,犯罪行为和违反合同的行为有类似的特征。那么,什么样的行为是侵权行为?
首先,侵权行为是一种违法行为。违法行为是侵权行为的最基本的特征,即侵权行为必须是违反法律的行为。因为合法的行为不违反任何法律权利和义务之间，可能存在任何人之中,他们不可能是侵权行为。侵权行为可能是由于违反一个法律规定的特定义务 (即违反法律义务)或违反规定的一般义务(即法律原则、社会公德或习惯)。无论哪种行为,只要行为违反了法律保护的公民权利,打破了法律的权威,此行为就是非法的。
第二,侵权行为是一种结合行为。一般来说,违法者实施侵权行为是有一定的主观错误,因此应该受到道德上的谴责。这可能是由于过失,过于自信,甚至是故意。因此,大部分侵权行为是基于过错,只有在某些情况下,法律规定侵权行为可以是无过错的。这些情况包括产品责任、环境污染责任、动物侵权等等。我们不应该简单的认为这些特殊情况下不需要有过错。更准确的描述应该是“不探究过错”，目的不是看被告是否有过错而是让受害者的损害更容易获得补偿。
第三,侵权行为是一种客观的行为。侵权行为是一种个人意志下的客观的行为。纯粹的精神活动没有任何物理作用不能构成侵权行为。另一方面,无论破坏力多大, 只要没有人参与，自然灾害不是侵权行为。即使有人为因素,但损害纯粹由自然因素造成，人的作用可以忽视，后续的损失由肇事者承担。作为一种客观的行为,侵权行为可能以不同的方式表达，它可以是作为或不作为，其不同于法律义务的本质在于侵权者亏欠别人。
最后,侵权行为是一种有害的行为。侵权行为可能会导致许多不同类型的损害，但本质上它们都是受害者合法的民事权利受到损害或伤害。因此,侵权行为人必须承担赔偿他给受害者造成的损失的责任。当侵权行为对一个人构成危害,这个人可以请求对方消除危险;当侵权行为阻碍或妨碍一个人行使他/她的权利,这个人可以请求对方排除妨碍;当侵权行为给一个人造成损害或损伤,这个人可以请求对方赔偿他/她的损害或损伤。
根据上述内容,我们可以总结，“侵权行为”是法律规定一个人在特定情形下，有过错或没有过错的违反了法律义务,侵犯了他人的人身或财产权利的行为。因此，侵权行为人要承担法律责任。在“中华人民共和国的侵权法”(以下简称“侵权法”)的第6和7章，清楚地接受这种观点:“一个人有过错地侵害他人民事权利或利益要承担侵权责任;如果任何法律规定侵犯他人的民事权利或利益,不管是否有过错应当承担侵权责任，他/她必须遵守这样的法定条款。”
正如前面所讨论的,“侵权行为”和“违约行为”非常相似,在司法实践中也经常混淆。因此,进一步比较这两种行为将帮助我们更好地理解侵权行为的法律内涵:(1)从违反法律义务的角度来看,“违约行为”违反合同双方之间的约定义务,而“侵权行为”是一个人或任何人违反法律规定的义务;(2)从合同关系是否存在的角度来看,我们应该事先确定这种关系是否存在,如果是这样的话,是一个合同案件;否则,它是一个侵权案件;(3)从所侵犯的东西的角度来看,“违约行为”违反了一个相对权利,而“侵权行为”违反了一个绝对权利,这是超出了合同或债务的范围的权利;(4)从损坏的角度来看,如果一个违法行为导致财产损失和受害者寻求救济, 在违约行为的情况下损害仅限于合理可预见的损害,但在侵权的情况下,包括实际发生的损害。
“侵权行为”和“犯罪行为”之间的差异相对更明显:(1)从法律基础的角度来看,“犯罪行为”是违反刑法,而“侵权行为”是违反了侵权法;(2)从违反或侵犯的对象的角度来看，“犯罪行为”可以侵犯的对象范围非常广泛的,而“侵权行为”可能只违反或侵犯两种权利——人身权和财产权——没有其他社会关系可能是“侵权行为”的对象;(3)从社会危害性的角度来看,“犯罪行为”必须带来某种程度的社会危害,但这对“侵权行为”来说并不正确, “侵权行为”只需要某些损害或伤害已经造成,(4)从主观的不法性的角度来看,“犯罪行为”有更高程度的主观的不法性,主要是有意的,但“侵权行为”只要求行为人主观过错,这在大多数情况下只是过失。
总之,对“侵权行为”最准确的理解是一个人的民事不法行为导致其他人的可补救的人身或财产损害,这样的行为违反了这个人的法定义务。在这一点上, 大陆法系和英美法系没有主要区别。但值得注意的是,中国大陆法系法律学者普遍接受的观点和看法是侵权行为要素构成侵权行为。换句话说,当侵权行为发生时, 在侵权者和受害者之间存在一个特殊的权利义务关系——侵权者有义务赔偿受害人的损失,受害人基于罪犯造成的损害有权请求赔偿。这种权利义务关系形成了所谓侵权之债。
侵权行为的类型
侵权行为是非常复杂的民事违法行为,有许多不同的形式和类型。因此,根据不同的标准对侵权行为进行分类有助于我们更清楚地了解他们的特点和差异,并进一步帮助我们总结他们的形成和研究相关的法律后果。最常见的分类方式包括以下几种:
1.根据构成要素要素,侵权行为可以被归类到一般侵权行为和特殊侵权行为。一般侵权行为由侵权行为法的一般条款规定。它们取决于侵权行为人个人的过错，适用过错责任和一般侵权要素。在这种情况下,损失通常是由侵权行为人的过错造成的。因此,侵权行为人要承担这些损失。实施一般侵权行为,侵权行为人必须具有民事行为能力,可以清楚地表达他/她的意图并意识到行为的后果；侵权行为人必须有过错,可以是故意或过失,过错是可以将责任强加给侵权行为人的基础。最后,法律基于一般侵权元素决定是否有侵权:违法行为、损害、因果关系、主观过错。特殊侵权行为,尽管这些行为在本质上是没有过错的,但显然是这些行为、事件或其他特殊原因造成的损失。在这些情况下,侵权行为人承担责任是由于侵权法中的具体规定。特殊侵权行为和一般侵权行为之间的主要差异反映在构成要素和归责原则。特殊侵权行为比一般侵权行为有更少的构成要素，适用推定过错责任和无过错责任归责原则。因为法律可能减少或颠倒某些构成要素证明责任,在实践中特殊侵权案件通常比一般侵权案件更容易证明。
2.根据侵权主体的数量,侵权行为可以被归类到单数侵权行为及复数侵权行为。正如其名称反映,一个单一的侵权行为是一个人侵权,这个人可以是一个自然人或法人。复数侵权行为由二人以上基于共同过错或有意识的合作实施的侵权行为。复数侵权行为损害他人的合法权益并造成同一损害。应该注意的是,单数侵权行为和复数的侵权行为之间的区别不仅是侵权主体的增加，更深层次的区别体现在法律关系的复杂性。法庭不仅需要决定这些侵权主体是否应当承担受害人的损失,还需要确定在这些侵权主体中如何分配责任——他们是否应当承担连带责任,每个侵权人的过错比例等。很容易发现要做出公平合理的司法裁决十分困难。
3.根据被侵害的不同权利,侵权行为可以被归类到基于财产权的侵权行为和基于人身权的侵权行为。基于财产权的侵权行为导致财产损失,因此,只能请求财产上的补偿。这里,财产权包括物权、债权利、知识产权等。基于财产权的侵权行为包括非法侵占、妨害行为、盗用、破坏、剽窃、伪造、篡改等基于人身权的侵权行为不仅导致财产损失,也可能导致精神痛苦，因此，在这种情况下一个受害者可能不仅得到财产损害赔偿，还可以请求解决精神上的痛苦。基于人身权的侵权行为可能会进一步被归类到基于人格权的侵权行为和基于身份权的侵权行为。人格权利包括生命权、健康权、身体权和其他特殊的人格权利以及姓名权、肖像权、隐私权和其他精神人格权利。身份权利包括作者权、荣誉权和缔结婚姻的权利等。
4.根据行为的性质，侵权行为可以被归类到作为的侵权行为和不作为的侵权行为。通过实施作为的侵权行为，行为人违反他的义务不做某事或积极实施一个违法行为。换句话说，法律禁止某些有害或非法行为来保护人民合法的民事权益,但侵权人积极实施这样一种行为。通过实施一个不作为的侵权行为,一个人违反他或她的义务采取行动并造成受害者的损害或伤害。在某些情况下，法律给一些特殊的人群制定了某些职责或义务，不执行这些职责或义务则构成侵权。这种义务或职责必须在法律中明确规定，它们通常在三种情况下创设:(1)义务基于某些特殊的人际关系，(2)义务基于某些特殊职业或职位，(3)义务根据以往的活动。
（译自：李翔，金继刚.简明中国侵权法[M].施普林格，2014：11-15）
附录二：外文原文
Part I Torts in Theory
Chapter 2 Tortious Act and Tort Liability
The Concept of Tortious Act
On a mountain near the Greek town of Delphi, there stands the Temple of Apollo. The ancient Greek people deemed the temple a place to communicate with the Gods. Within the temple, there is an old slate with unknown age, bearing on it seven commandments allegedly from Gods. Among them, the most famous one is “people, know yourself! ” Indeed, how on earth can we know ourselves?
Even now, this is an unanswered question. In the eyes of people from different professions, identities, or social statuses, the view can be very different. But, in the eyes of legal scholars (particularly Tort Law scholars), a human being is more often treated as an abstract host having a set of legal rights, such as the right to life, personal rights, right to image, privacy right, etc. These rights, when added together, form a legal person.
Thus, everyone in this world is a collection of legal rights. Although these rights are complicated and may change from time to time, the common valuable effect of these rights is the endowment of autonomous power to people. It is this autonomous power that protects us as independent and free people, allows each one of us to be the owner of our own soul, and prevents outside forces to interfere with our acts or control our will. We can not only control our bodies to participate any type of activities but also manipulate our mind to travel freely in the spiritual world. We can even use our free will to not do anything. Eve
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