贸易政策和收入不平等:新证据外文翻译资料

 2022-11-15 16:51:34

Trade policy and income inequality: new evidence

Andreas Savvides

Abstract:

This paper uses recently available data to investigate the link between income inequality and trade protection. It finds that among less developed countries, more open economies experienced increased income inequality during the late 1980s. Trade policy has had no effect on income inequality in developed countries.

  1. Introduction

The relationship between international trade policy and income inequality has long been the subject of debate by economists, policy makers, and intellectuals. The issue at the heart of the debate is whether trade liberalization is associated with narrowing or widening income disparities. The view that an increase in the degree of inwardness of the trade regime is commensurate with increased income inequality has gained credence recently. On the other hand, critics of the multilateral institutions have claimed that structural adjustment programs encompassing reductions in trade barriers exacerbate income disparities. Empirical evidence on this question has been scant due in large part to the unavailability of satisfactory measures of trade protection and income distribution comparable across countries. The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the debate by using two recently constructed data sets on income distribution and trade protection to analyze empirically the link between trade protection and changes in income distribution.

2.Measuring trade protection and income distribution

It is well known that measuring a countrys outward orientation is an especially difficult task. There are both conceptual and empirical problems in attempting to condense the plethora and complexity of trade barriers into a summary measure of a countrys trade-policy stance. Nonetheless, several attempts have been made to obtain overall measures of trade orientation ranging from ordinal measures encompassing subjective evaluation, to direct observations on economic variables (e.g. the black market premium) or policy instruments (e.g. tariffs and quantitative restrictions) that capture the extent of trade policy-induced distortions, to regression-based measures that compare the actual outcome of prices/trade patterns to what they would have been in the absence of trade barriers.Pritchett (1996) and Edwards (1997) discuss the various measures and offer a cautionary note about their usage.

In this paper I use a recently compiled measure of protection by Lee and Swagel (1997). It is based on desegregated data on trade control measures (both tariff and non-tariff barriers) compiled from UNCTAD data at the four-digit level of the Customs Cooperation Council Nomenclature. Thus, it is one of the most comprehensive measures of trade orientation available. Moreover, Lee and Swagel (Lamp;S) compute this measure for 1988 while most other measures of outward orientation refer to earlier periods. The Lamp;S measure can therefore be used to study the implications of trade restrictions on income inequality for the period (late 1980s) following the implementation of trade liberalization measures by many developing countries as part of structural adjustment programs. Lamp;S compute a measure of trade barriers at the industry level for each of the 41 countries included in their sample.Moreover, they provide an overall measure of protection for each country by aggregating the data on industry barriers, weighing them by a countrys own-import value for each industry1 . They compute two weighted measures of protection. The first includes tariffs and other charges on imports. The

second measure considers non-tariff barriers (NTBs) and reports coverage of `core non-tariff measures including quantitative restrictions, voluntary export restraints and advance payment requirements. As tariff barriers have declined during the last two decades under the auspices of

various GATT rounds, NTBs have become increasingly important as instruments of protection. Lamp;S focus attention on the NTB measure of protection, studying the various politico-economic deter-minants of NTBs. This is also the measure of protection used in this study. As a check on the robustness of our empirical results, the Lamp;S tariff measure serves as an alternative indicator of the degree of protection. Finally, I employ a third indicator of protection based on Lamp;S: the ratio of

non-tariff to tariff barriers. This ratio attempts to capture the increasing importance of NTBs relative to tariffs.

Until recently, cross-country studies of income inequality have been hampered by the lack of comparable data across country and time. The various income surveys from which measures of income inequality are derived differ in terms of the recipient unit, the variable being measured, and the definition of income being used. Therefore, drawing meaningful conclusions has been treacherous.Recently, Deininger and Squire (1996) have compiled a high quality data set on income distribution that ensures data comparability intertemporally and internationally. The Deininger-Squire estimates of the Gini coefficient serve as my indicator of the degree of cross-country income inequality. Given that the hypothesis of interest is the impact of trade protection on the temporal pattern of income inequality, the dependent variable is the change in the average Gini coefficient between 1978-87 and 1988-94. An average measure of inequality seems preferable because the Deininger-Squire data set does not contain information for every country-year combination and also in order to avoid any bias imparted by single-year estimates of inequality . In addition to the impact of protection on income inequality and as an additional check on the robustness of the results, this study also investigates the effects of trade protection on the incomes of th

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贸易政策和收入不平等:新证据

Andreas Savvides

摘要:

本文使用最近可获得的数据来研究收入不平等与贸易保护之间的联系。它发现了在较不发达国家中,较为开放的经济体在20世纪80年代后期经历了收入不平等的加剧。贸易政策对发达国家的收入不平等没有影响。

  1. 介绍

国际贸易政策与收入不平等之间的关系长期以来一直是经济学家,决策者等知识分子辩论的主题。辩论的核心问题是贸易自由化是否与缩小或扩大收入差距有关。最近,人们认为贸易制度的内在程度与收入不平等加剧相称的观点已经得到了证实。另一方面,多边机构的批评者声称,包括减少贸易壁垒在内的结构调整方案加剧了收入差距。关于这个问题的经验证据很少,在很大程度上是由于没有令人满意的贸易保护措施和各国可比的收入分配。本文的目的是通过使用最近构建的两个关于收入分配和贸易保护的数据集来进行辩论,以实证分析贸易保护与收入分配变化之间的联系。

2.衡量贸易保护和收入分配

众所周知,衡量一个国家的外向是一项特别困难的任务。在试图将贸易壁垒的过多和复杂性压缩成一个国家贸易政策立场的总结度量时,存在概念和实证问题。尽管如此,已经进行了多次尝试以获得贸易导向的总体衡量标准,从包含主观评价的有序措施,到直接观察经济变量(例如黑市溢价)或政策工具(例如关税和数量限制),贸易政策引起的扭曲,基于回归的措施,将价格/贸易模式的实际结果与没有贸易壁垒时的情况进行比较.Pritchett(1996)和Edwards(1997)讨论了各种措施并提供了关于其用法的警示性说明。

在本文中,我使用Lee和Swagel(1997)最近编译的保护措施。它以贸发会议海关合作理事会命名法四位数数据汇编的贸易管制措施(关税和非关税壁垒)的分类数据为基础。因此,它是可用的最全面的贸易导向措施之一。此外,Lee和Swagel(L&S)计算了1988年的这一指标,而大多数其他外向指标则指的是早期阶段。因此,在许多发展中国家实施贸易自由化措施作为结构调整方案的一部分之后,L&S措施可用于研究贸易限制对1980年代后期(1980年代后期)收入不平等的影响。 L&S为其样本中包含的41个国家中的每个国家计算了行业层面的贸易壁垒衡量标准。此外,它们通过汇总行业壁垒数据,通过国家自己的每个行业的进口价值权衡来衡量每个国家的保护措施。他们计算两种加权保护措施。第一项包括关税和其他进口费用。该第二项措施考虑非关税壁垒(NTBs)并报告“核心”非关税措施的覆盖范围,包括数量限制,自愿出口限制和预付款要求。由于关税壁垒在过去二十年中在各种关贸总协定轮次的支持下有所下降,因此非关税壁垒作为保护工具变得越来越重要。 L&S关注NTB的保护措施,研究非关税壁垒的各种政治经济决定因素。这也是本研究中使用的保护措施。作为对我们实证结果稳健性的检查,L&S关税指标可作为保护程度的替代指标。最后,我采用了基于L&S的第三个保护指标:比率为关税壁垒无关税。该比率试图捕捉非关税壁垒相对于关税的日益重要性。

直到最近,由于缺乏跨国家和时间的可比数据,对收入不平等的跨国研究受到了阻碍。从中获得收入不平等度量的各种收入调查在接受者单位,被衡量的变量和所用收入的定义方面有所不同。因此,得出有意义的结论是危险的。最近,Deininger和Squire(1996)编制了一份关于收入分配的高质量数据集,以确保数据在国际上和国际上的可比性。 Deininger和Squire对基尼系数的估计是我对跨国收入不平等程度的指标。鉴于利益假设是贸易保护对收入不平等时间模式的影响,因变量是1978-87和1988-94之间平均基尼系数的变化。平均衡量不平等似乎更为可取,因为Deininger和Squire数据集不包含每个国家 - 年组合的信息,也是为了避免单一年度不平等估计所产生的任何偏差。除了保护对收入不平等的影响以及对结果稳健性的额外检查之外,本研究还调查了贸易保护对最贫困的20%人口收入的影响。

3.实证结果

为了研究感兴趣的假设,估计以下模型:

△GINIi=alpha; beta;0△yi beta;1DCi beta;2PROTi beta;3(PROTi.DC) beta;4SECi εi

其中△GINI是两个时期之间基尼系数的变化(表示不平等增加的正数),Dy是通过人均收入(log)变化衡量的经济增长率,DC是虚拟变量对于发达国家来说,PROT是一个标准,PROT是衡量NTB保护的L&S指标,SEC是人力资本投资的衡量标准。引入收入增长来检验经济增长促进收入平等的猜想。一些作者(如Wood,1994)指出,鉴于工业和发展中经济体之间的要素禀赋和其他结构特征的差异,有理由期望贸易保护会对这两个群体产生不同的影响。因此,交互项包含在方程式中。 (1)。引入了解释变量(SEC)以测试教育对收入不平等的所谓有利影响(参见Bourguignon(1994)和Birdsall等(1995))。中学入学率(教育投资流量的衡量标准)作为相关的解释变量。正如Bourguignon(1994)所说,虽然是人力资本的禀赋决定收入不平等,禀赋变化或人力资本投资应该影响一个国家是否成功地减少了收入不平等。

估算结果见表1.该模型通过工具变量(IV)估算,以说明贸易保护可能的内生性。Lee和Swagel(1997)提出了几个变量作为非关税壁垒的可能决定因素。其中四个在跨国基础上随时可用并作为工具:加权平均关税税率,该国货币的平均黑市溢价,出口在总产出中的份额和人均收入(作为衡量标准)每个工人的工资。

收入不平等 - 贸易保护关系的估计(因变量,△GINI)

Explanatory variables

(1) LS NTB

(2) LS NTB

(3) LS tariff

(4) LS (1)/(3)

(5) Black market

(6) Sachs

(7) LS NTB

Intercept

6.25 (2.30)

6.48 (2.66)

9.69 (2.21)

4.64 (2.10)

0.48 (0.18)

26.51 (1.84)

2.40 (1.16)

△y

-10.62 (2.52)

-10.24 (2.53)

-9.84 (2.18)

-8.06 (2.82)

-6.93 (1.28)

-13.62(2.20)

DC

-6.45 (1.97)

-6.78 (2.01)

2.17 (0.33)

-7.01 (2.29)

1.11 (0.56)

-6.03 (2.37)

PROT

-2.43 (2.54)

-1.85 (2.54)

-3.46 (2.41)

-5.77 (3.54)

-18.35 (2.16)

10.04 (2.00)

-1.62 (2.52)

PROT-DC

3.29 (2.74)

2.81 (2.45)

-1.37 (0.43)

8.76 (4.08)

9.14 (0.53)

-0.88 (0.37)

3.04 (3.13)

SEC

-2.54 (1.46)

-2.97 (1.63)

-1.47 (1.01)

-3.25 (1.92)

-4.51 (1.76)

-3.91 (2.08)

△INC

-0.01 (0.02)

△(I/INC)

19.45 (2.17)

Statistics

GR 2

0.15

0.10

0.20

0.11

0.11

0.10

0.15

Sargans x 2(significance level)

2.22 (0.53)

1.03 (0.79)

1.86 (0.60)

7.00 (0.14)

4.16 (0.25)

3.36 (0.19)

0.45 (0.93)

LM-heteroscedasticity(significance level)

3.58 (0.06)

0.49 (0.49)

7.94 (0.01)

0.25 (0.62)

0.55 (0.46)

1.59 (0.21)

8.80 (0.00)

关税税率来自L&S,黑市溢价和出口份额分别来自Barro-Lee和Summers-Heston数据集(黑市溢价和出口份额是1980年至84年期间的平均值)。除了系数估计之外,表1还给出了在IV估计情况下Sargan x 2一般错误指定测试的值。零假设是正确指定回归方程,工具变量是有效工具;它不能在任何估计的回归模型中被拒绝。表1还显示了Pesaran和Smith(1994)的推广值-R2(GR)2的值。根据Pesaran和Smith的观点,与调整后的确定系数(R2)相比,GR2是IV方法的渐近有效模型选择标准。最后,该表显示了异方差性的拉格朗日乘数检验的值。表1中的t统计数据基于White的异方差性一致标准误差。

第(1)栏列出了方程式的估计值。(1)。我们的主要结论和本文的主旨涉及贸易保护与收入不平等变化之间的关系。很明显,发达经济体贸易保护的反应系数在发展中国家(LDC)之间存在显着差异。最不发达国家的反应系数是负面和显着的。这些经济体的贸易自由化趋向于加剧收入不平等。爱德华兹(1997)报告说,对于最不发达国家,他的贸易保护措施(黑市溢价)与收入不平等的变化正相关。Bourguignon(1994)也报告说,二元保护措施(如果有效保护率超过30%则等于一)对该等级产生的不均衡影响收入不平等(以穷人的收入份额衡量)。然而,他的结果适用于一小部分最不发达国家。当他将样本扩展并将贸易扭曲测量为与基于购买力平价的投资品指数的偏差时,该结果不再有效。此外,他的观察主要涉及20世纪70年代早期。最后,伍德(1994)(第6章)认为,增加制成品出口应减少收入不平等,因为对基础教育的工人的需求(和回报)增加。他的实证结果用20世纪60年代到80年代初期17个最不发达国家收入不平等变化的数据证明是不确定的。我们的结果与其他研究之间的差异可能是由于贸易限制的衡量标准不同。然而,正如目前所示,当L&S指标被黑市溢价所取代时,我们的结论大致相似。更有可能的是,结果的差异在于研究的不同时间框架。虽然其他研究着眼于20世纪70年代和80年代之间收入不平等的变化(或1970年代的不平等程度),当结构调整计划要么没有到位或大多数最不发达国家开始实施时,我们的研究使用了更新的数据,因此,可能更好地捕捉这些计划的经济后果。我们的研究也有助于正在进行的关于自由贸易对发达国家收入不平等的影响的辩论。发

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