巴西农村的非农就业和农民收入的形态和发展外文翻译资料

 2023-01-12 11:54:22

巴西农村的非农就业和农民收入的形态和发展

摘要:在过去几十年,工人队伍庞大离开农场和小城镇转移到巴西的大城市。但在上世纪90年代,不仅这种流动消退,甚至在农村地区出现了“城市化”,在20世纪80年代和90年代,这些农村地区的非农活动大量增加,特别是在巴西的中西部和东南部地区。仅从事农业的农村家庭的收入低于那些同时从事农业工作和非农业工作的家庭和只从事非农业农村家庭的收入。有人曾经记录过,在1992—1997年间,全国只从事农业活动的家庭数量显著减少。

关键词:农村非农活动;农民就业;城乡关系

近几年来,人们认为在拉丁美洲的农村,从事农业的人数在不断下降,也有人得出这样一个结论:从事农业的人口越少,城市越发达。在参与经济合作和发展组织的国家中,大城市吸引人口不断往城市聚集,使得他们的农田和农村人口大量减少,从80年代中期开始,这些国家就开始设计具体的政策,以避免在城市的发展过程中农村被遗忘的情况。但同时,拉美国家的人则普遍认为,中小城市的农村人口外流和农村被遗弃的现象是不可阻挡的。

促进农村人口非农就业的5个动力

在拉丁美洲的各个国家,克莱因(1992年)和韦勒(1997年)研究得出了促进农村人口非农就业现象产生的五个动力,当然这五个动力不是互相排斥的。其中三个都是与农业活动直接相关的,(一)农业和非农业之间的“生产的联系”,非农业活动有贸易、运输、农产品加工,还有投资农场活动;(二)农村人口对非农产品的需求,但是这些产品需要从城镇的企业购买;(三)农村人口提供了丰富的剩余劳动力,他们为了生存而寻求工作,通过做这些非农业工作来补充原本微薄的农业收入,这些工作包括家政服务,农业雇佣劳动等。另外两个动力与农业活动不直接相关:(四)城镇人口所需要的部分非农商品和服务的生产地在农村,如工艺品,乡村旅游服务等;(五)农村地区的公共服务。

在一些国家,比如巴西,城市人口所产生的需求对当地农村的非农就业的发展具有决定性影响。几乎所有巴西的大都市所产生的消费需求都深刻地影响着产品和人员的流向,决定产品和人员是从城市流向农村还是从农村流向城市。在某些区域,因为有城镇居民居住而促进了当地农业活动的发展,因为城镇居民会进行休闲、旅游、保护环境等活动。我们把这种类型的农业活动称为“新”农业活动,如“付费钓鱼”、“狩猎小屋”、种植和养殖用于观赏的动植物等等。把“新”加上引号是因为在现实中很多传统的农业活动直到如今才在获得较好的经济效益,这些传统农业活动有“趣味农场”,还有用来养鱼、做园艺、种花栽树、饲养小动物的小型家庭农场等。其他的一些活动则不是传统的,比如收费钓鱼。近年来,这些活动最终被转型了,并为农村人口的就业提供了良好的机会,也成为农村家庭重要的收入来源。这些活动之前不是很发达,并且在地理位置上相当分散,现在已成为形成了产业化经营、私人服务,也形成了相对复杂和精密的分配系统、通信系统和包装系统。

在1990年全国住户抽样调查里,Graziano da Silva(1996年)表明,在一个被调查的产业活动中,城镇居民的人均收入总是超过农村居民的人均收入,并且那些从事农业工作但生活在城市里的人的平均收入比那些生活在农村地区的人高出近三倍。笔者还发现,在农村居民的收入来源中,大体上非农收入比农业收入高得多。结合这两个研究结果来看,造成农村居民平均收入低于城市居民平均收入的原因是农民的农业收入较低。

结论与启示

人们可以不再根据农业的发展情况来确定巴西农村发展的发展快慢,也不能再以农村的农业活动记录、农产品和农业用地的增加或减少来反映农村就业的现状。在农村地区,一些农业或非农业活动的快速发展,比如提供私人服务、休闲活动服务和一些与商业相关的服务,还有商业,甚至是工业活动。这些现象与以前被认为是重要的城镇化现象不同,以前所说的农村城镇化是指高收入的城市居民来到农村短暂地住几个礼拜或一个暑假的时间,或者低收入的城市家庭因为农村的消费较低,在距离城市不远的农村建立一个能负担得起的家庭。现在农村的非农业活动瞄准这样一个市场,在农村城镇化的过程中不断发展自己,包括建设和维护住房,旅游休闲服务,清洁服务,环境保护服务等。

农村家庭形成了“空闲时间商品化”的概念,这一原因可以解释为什么会产生这些变化(Long等,1986)。也可能是农民家庭中有人没有受雇于农业活动,或者是有人从事于像制造甜点、果酱、家具、手工用具的非农业生产活动,也有从事于休闲服务相关的活动,像狩猎、捕鱼、制作工艺品、种植花卉、饲养珍稀动物等。与其他产品和服务不同的是,这些产品和服务一旦被家庭成员消耗了之后,就不会像其他商品一样被再生产与销售。在这一过程中,农村家庭用于农业生产的时间越来越少,农业活动反而变成了农民的一种副业,农业活动的收入变得只是家庭收入的一部分,而不是全部(Marsden,1990年)。由于国际上农产品的价格下跌,所以在长时间内农民来自农业活动的收入也相应下降,这一状况加快了农民脱离农业活动的速度。有数据表明,农业收入的降低和非农自营活动收入的增长是促使农民家庭工作的转变,从仅从事农业活动转变为同时从事农业工作和非农业工作的和只从事非农业工作。

此外,我们的研究结果还指出对于农民家庭来说,退休金和养老金政策十分重要,有一种含义是,对于那些在贫穷地区与贫穷抗争的农民,他们需要有效的社会保障政策能维护他们的权益,如东北的广大农村。另一个含义是,那些支持家庭农场的项目不能继续无视一个事实:对于他们的潜在受益者来说,来自非农活动和社会公共保障的收入在所有收入中占有重要比例(Hill,1999)。参与这些项目的标准是参与者的大部分收入是来自农业活动,这意味着这些项目的受益者是拥有大农场的人,而那些同时从事农业和非农业活动的小农场家庭中的大多数都不被包括在计划内,因为这些项目是支持家庭农业的。

最后,住在乡村的失业人员和退休人员的数量的增长是巴西的农村地区被改造成居民住宅区最重要的指标,这些地方不仅仅只是工作场所,住在这些住宅区的人没有就业和干农活的必要。居住地点和工作场所的不断分离的现象在城市已经产生了,而在农村产生这个现象就意味着农村城镇化的开始,在不久的将来,农民要想转变为城镇居民就不需要再迁移到城市中去。

虽然我们的研究得出了这样一个结论,但是实际上,巴西农村非农就业的增长并不意味着在这样的情况下,农民的工作条件和收入也得到了相应的改善和提高。我们发现,这些工作中的私人服务大部分都是女佣的工作,其他的工作所需要的人也只需要学历水平不高的人就可以了,相应的工资也很低。这些类型的农村非农就业并不是我们所表述的“新”农业活动,也跟政策决策者所希望的农民自我发展的要求并不符合,不能起到很好的作用。

我们强调,决策者应该把巴西农村地区的非农业产业的发展视为创造新形式就业机会和收入的领域。生活在这些地区的人们,他们当中很多人没法参与更为高端的职业,因为他们缺乏相关的职业技能和资格。由此看来,有必要制定一系列新的非农就业政策,对于那些以前不能、如今仍不能靠农业现代化来实现发展的农村来说,新的非农就业政策能够促进农村的发展。最后,为了给农村地区的人们创造更好的生活和更多的就业机会,很有必要把农村推向真正的城镇化。只有这样,农村人口才不需要再向城市迁移,因为人们可以生活在农村地区,但是却能享受到和与城市同样的商品和服务。

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Rural Nonfarm Employment and Incomes in Brazil:

Patterns and Evolution

JOSE GRAZIANO DA SILVA

Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Brazil

and

MAURO EDUARDO DEL GROSSI *

Instituto Agrono^mico do Parana, Londrina, Brazil

Summary — In decades past, a large contingent of workers left farms and small towns to move to the large cities of Brazil. But in the 1990s, not only has this flow subsided, but one even observes an “urbanization” of rural areas via a large increase in nonfarm activities in rural areas during the 1980s and 1990s, especially in the Center-West and Southeast regions of Brazil. Exclusively agricultural rural households have lower incomes than “multiactive households” (those with activities in both the farm and nonfarm sectors) and than nonfarm rural households. One even notes a significant reduction in the number of purely farm households over 1992—97 in all regions of the country.

Key words — rural nonfarm activities, rural employment, urban—rural relations

  1. INTRODUCTION

Until recently, it was assumed that rural and agricultural employment was in decline in Latin America. It was also postulated that the smaller the rural population, the more developed is the region. The OECD countries, after decades of depopulation of their farmlands and the brutal concentration of their populations in large cities, began in the mid-1980s to design specific policies to avoid what is conventionally called the desertion of their rural areas (USDA, 1997). In the meantime, in Latin American countries, the rural exodus and abandonment of small and medium cities was accepted as inexorable.

  1. THE DYNAMICS OF THE CREATION OF RNFE IN BRAZIL

The work of Klein (1992) and Weller (1997) identify five main dynamics (obviously not mutually exclusive) of determination of RNFE(rural nonfarm employment) in various countries of Latin America. Three of them are directly linked to agriculture, to wit: (a) activities arising from ``production-linkages between the farm and nonfarm sectors, either in the commerce, transport, and processing of farm products, or the provision of farm inputs; (b) activities arising from rural consumer demand for nonfarm products, either from rural or urban firms; (c) activities arising from the abundant supply of labor from peasant families (seeking survival employment), including domestic services, farm wage labor, and other activities to complement meager farm incomes.

The other two dynamics are not linked to agriculture: (d) the demand by the urban population of nonfarm goods and services produced in rural areas, such as handicrafts, rural tourism services, and so on; (e) public services in rural areas.

In the case of countries such as Brazil, the demand generated by the urban sectors, independently of local agriculture, can be decisive in the growth of RNFE. Brazil has in practically all its regions large metropolitan areas that profoundly influence the flows of products and persons whether in the direction city to countryside or countryside to city. The agricultural activities in a given region can be reconned by urban residents living near rural areas, urbanites in search of leisure, tourism, and environmental preservation. Thus is born another dynamic of RNFE creation, based in what we have termed ``new agricultural activities such as ``fee fishing, hunting lodges, production of ornamental plants and animals, and so on.

The term “new” was placed between quotation marks because many of these activities in reality are traditional but until recently did not attain economic importance. Some of these activities are traditional, such as hobby farms, small family firms and farms related to fish farming, horticulture, flower farming, fruit farming, raising small animals, and so on. Others are not traditional, such as fee fishing. But they ended up being transformed into important sources of incomes and employment for rural families in recent years. Many of these activities, before little developed and quite dispersed geographically, have become veritable productive chains involving agro-industrial operations, personal services, and relatively complex and sophisticated systems of distribution, communications, and packaging.

  1. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Using the PNAD data of 1990, Graziano da Silva (1996) showed that, for a given branch of activity, the average income in that activity of an urban resident always exceeds that of a rural resident. Among those working in agriculture, those living in the city earn on average nearly three times more than those living in rural areas. The author also found that nonfarm incomes were substantially higher than agricultural incomes for rural residents; the exception was farm incomes relative to personal service incomes in the Center-West. These two findings combined indicate that it is the low farm incomes that lower the average income of rural residents relative to urban residents.

One can no longer characterize the dynamic of the Brazilian rural areas as determined exclusively by agriculture. Rural employment can no longer be explained in terms of the agricultural calendar and of the expansion or reduction of agricultural production and area. There is a set of new agricultural activities and nonfarm activities such as the provision of services (personal services, leisure activities, and services linked to other economic activities), commerce, and even industrial activities, that are springing from rural population dynamics distinct from those that were important in the past, such as ``rural urbanization from temporary movement of high-income urbanites into rural areas for weekend or summer stays and more permanent movements of lower income urban households into rural areas to build affordable homes within commuting distance

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