Monsters and Growling Dogs: A Dual-Source Theory of the Childs Concept of Fear
Mary H. Kayyal, Sherri C. Widen Boston College, USA
Abstract
Prior research suggests that young children associate fear with imaginary creatures more strongly than with realistic threats to safety. We propose an alternative: the Dual-Source Account of childrens understanding of fear. In this account, as early as the age of 3 years, children associate both realistic and imaginary causes of fear with being scared, and this understanding increases with age. In the current study, children (N=48, 3-5 years) labeled the emotion of a storys protagonist who encountered either a realistic or imaginary fear-eliciting creature. Young preschoolers attributed fear to both imaginary and realistic creatures approximately half of the time, and their attribution of fear to both imaginary and realistic creatures increased steadily with age. Thus, as predicted by our account and evolutionary theorizing, the basis of childrens understanding of fear includes both realistic and imaginary causes of fear.
Keywords: fear, realistic, imaginary, free labeling, emotion
Introduction
What do young children think is scary? Real threats to safety with which they have had a real experience (such as spiders or mean dogs) or imaginary causes with which they could never have had a real experience (such as monsters and ghosts)? Prior research supports the latter, showing that imaginary creatures loom large in young childrens fear concept. Indeed, children think imaginary creatures are scarier than real ones, even when they readily admit that these creatures are 'just pretend' (Sayfan amp; Lagatutta, 2008, 2009). When asked to generate a story about a possible cause of fear, young children (4-8 years) are more likely to tell stories with imaginary causes than realistic ones (Denham amp; Zoller, 1991; Strayer, 1986). Childrens references to such imaginary causes decrease with age (e.g., Lentz, 1985; Muris, Merckelbach, Gadet, amp; Moulaert, 2000). In the current study, we show that imaginary causes of fear are not primary in young preschoolers understanding of that emotion. Instead, young preschoolers understand both imaginary and realistic causes of fear equally.
Two theoretical accounts on the relation between childrens real-world knowledge and their ability to engage in pretense each explain why children are afraid of imaginary creatures. In the undifferentiated-imaginary account, preschoolers fear of imaginary creatures reflects their undifferentiated and distorted perception of reality (Bauer, 1976). This account draws on Piagets (1952, 1962) claim that the pre-operational child (2-7 years) is dominated by magical thinking and fails to understand that what they have merely imagined cannot become real. Recent research, however, has refuted the Piagetian claim that children younger than seven years cannot distinguish the real from the imagined (e.g., Flavell, Flavell, amp; Green, 1987; Harris, Brown, Marriott, Whittall, amp; Harmer, 1991; Samuels amp; Taylor, 1994; Wellman amp; Estes, 1986; Woolley amp; Phelps, 1994).
On the second account, the differentiated-imaginary account, preschoolers fear of imaginary creatures reflects the emergence of pretend play in the second year of life and its quick development thereafter (Bleuler, 1951; Harris, 2000; Leslie, 1994). On this account, childrens fear begins with realistic, experience- based causes and only later broadens to include imaginary ones as childrens imaginative abilities increase during the preschool years. Specifically, before children can pretend, they must have acquired a causal understanding of the real world. For example, a young child can learn to fear hot stoves via associative learning after burning herself on one (e.g., Watson amp; Rayner, 1920), by watching another person get burned (e.g., Askew amp; Field, 2007), or by hearing information about the hazards of touching a hot stove (e.g., Muris, Bodden, Merckelbach, Ollendick, amp; King, 2003). Imagining that one should not approach the stove because a fire-breathing dragon lives behind it requires an advanced imagination not entailed by the other examples. The differentiated-imaginary account, which focuses on childrens experience of fear (i.e., what scares young children and why), raises questions about childrens understanding of fear (what children think is scary), and how that understanding changes with age.
We propose a cognitive-developmental account that we call the Dual-Source account that focuses on childrens understanding of the causes of fear. In this account, by three years of age, childrens understanding of fear includes both realistic and imaginary causes, both of which increase with age. The Dual-Source account is consonant with evolutionary theorizing that preschoolers fear of imaginary creatures is a byproduct of childrens ability to anticipate real dangers (Barrett, 2005; Boyer amp; Bergstrom, 2011). On our account, neither realistic nor imaginary causes are the basis of childrens understanding of fear because both reality and imagination are part of the process of producing fear. For example, there are real events – such as a snake in the grass or a charging bear in the woods – that produce startle and orienting reflexes that occur with minimal or no cognitive processing and that are labeled as fear. But aside from these reflexes, most cases labeled as fear include a cognitive appraisal of the future implications of a current situation. Fear typically involves anticipating the future (be it immediate, such as being mugged, or long-term, such as contemplating a major life change), thus both reality and imagination are involved. Conversely, most other emotions are caused primarily by past or current events. Typ
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怪物和咆哮的狗:关于孩子恐惧概念的双源理论
摘要
先前的研究表明,年幼的孩子联想到恐惧与假想的生物比现实中的存在更能威胁安全。因此我们提出了一种假设:儿童恐惧的双重来源帐户。在这个帐户中,早在3岁的时候,孩子就会把恐惧的现实和虚构的原因与害怕联系在一起,这种理解随着年龄的增长而增加。 在目前的研究中,儿童(N = 48,3 - 5年)标注了一个故事主角的情绪,他遇到了一个现实或虚构的恐惧诱发生物。 年幼的学龄前儿童大概在一半时间内将恐惧归因于虚构和真实的生物,而对虚构和真实的生物的恐惧归因于年龄的稳定增长。 因此,根据我们的叙述和进化理论预测,儿童对恐惧的理解的基础包括恐惧的现实和虚构的原因。
关键词:恐惧,现实,虚构,自由标签,情感
引言
小孩子认为可怕的是什么?真正的安全威胁,是从他们已有的真实的经验(如可怕蜘蛛或咆哮的狗)还是他们从来没有体验过的(如怪物和鬼)?先前的研究支持后者,显示虚构的生物在幼儿的恐惧概念中大大增加。 事实上,孩子们认为想象的生物是可怕的。即使他们很容易承认这些生物“只是假想的”(Sayfan&Lagatutta,2008,2009)。当要求讲一个恐怖的故事时,幼儿(4-8岁)更有可能讲虚构的故事而不是现实的故事(Denham&Zoller,1991; Strayer,1986)。 儿童提到的虚构原因随年龄而减少(例如,Lentz,1985; Muris,Merckelbach,Gadet,&Moulaert,2000)。 在目前的研究中,我们认为,恐惧的虚构原因并不是年幼的学龄前儿童对这种情感的理解。 相反,年幼的学龄前儿童平等地理解了虚构和现实的恐惧原因。
关于儿童现实世界知识与其伪装能力之间关系的理论阐述,解释了孩子们为什么害怕虚构的生物。 在未分化的想象中,学龄前儿童对虚构动物的恐惧反映了他们对现实的不分化和扭曲的观念(Bauer,1976)。 这个帐户借鉴了皮亚杰(1952,1962)的说法,称学龄前的孩子(2-7岁)是以魔法思维为主,而不了解他们所想象的只是不能成真。 然而,最近的研究却驳斥了皮亚杰说,七岁以下的儿童无法区分真实与想像的(例如,Flavell,Flavell,&Green,1987; Harris,Brown,Marriott,Whittall,&Harmer,1991; Samuels& Taylor,1994; Wellman&Estes,1986; Woolley&Phelps,1994)。
在第二个记录中,差异化想象的帐户,学龄前儿童对虚构动物的恐惧反映了在生命的第二年出现假装戏剧,并在此之后迅速发展(Bleuler,1951; Harris,2000; Leslie,1994)。就此而言,儿童的恐惧始于现实的,以经验为基础的事情,只有在学龄前的时候,儿童的想象能力才会增加,才能扩大到虚构的范围。具体地说, 在儿童可以假装之前, 他们必须对现实世界有一种因果理解。例如, 一个年幼的孩子在看到别人烧伤后就可以学会害怕热火炉 (例如, 沃森和凯尔·雷纳, 1920), 通过观察另一个人被烧伤 (例如, 歪和田, 2007), 或通过听到有关接触热灶的危险的信息 (例如, Muris, Bodden, Merckelbach, Ollendick, 和国王,2003)。想象一个人不该靠近火炉, 因为它背后有一条火的龙, 它需要想象力, 而不是其他的例子。关于儿童的恐惧经验(即,什么恐吓幼儿和为什么)的差异化想象的帐户提出了关于孩子对恐惧的理解的疑问(孩子们认为是可怕的),以及这种认知如何随着年龄的变化而变化。
与“双源”和“差异化虚构”两个词相反,先前关于儿童对恐惧理解的研究表明, 考虑到三岁以下,儿童对恐惧的理解包括现实和虚构的原因,两者都随着年龄增长而增加。双源帐户符合进化理论,即学龄前儿童对虚构动物的恐惧是儿童预测真实危险的能力的副产品(Barrett,2005; Boyer&Bergstrom,2011)。在我们的叙述中,既不是现实的,也没有虚构的原因,是孩子对恐惧的理解的基础,因为现实和想像力都是恐惧的过程的一部分。例如草地上的蛇或树林里的充电熊。但除了这些反应之外,大多数被称为恐惧的案例包括对当前形势未来影响的认知评估。恐惧通常涉及预测未来【无论是立即的(例如被虐待),还是长期的(如考虑重大的生活改变)】,因此涉及现实和想象力。相反,大多数其他情绪主要是由过去或当前事件引起的。当然,任何情感都可以源自于想象力,但大部分情绪的原型都有过去或现在的原因,而恐惧的原型则是未来。这些原型成为这些情绪的概念的核心。这样,我们假设幼儿隐含地理解想象力在产生恐惧中的作用,但也明白恐惧不仅限于想象力。
孩子的理解从现实和虚构的原因开始,既不是主要的,也是一个主要的原因 - 提出了一个原因是否随着年龄的增长而变得比另一个原因更为主要的问题。我们的双源帐户是基于情感概念获取的脚本理论(Fehr&Russell,1984; Russell,1991; Widen&Russell,2008,2010a)。一个情绪剧本是有序的事件序列,它规定了例如这种情绪的可能原因和行为后果 - 因为恐惧,一个消极的事件及其想象的未来影响(Widen&Russell,2008,2010a)。一个中心的假设是经验和年龄指导每个情绪的脚本的获取。恐惧脚本发展成为儿童见证或体验安全的真正威胁,经历模糊的情况(例如,暗室,暗室中的噪音),他们解释为可怕,并听到关于可怕的虚构实体的文化特定故事。因为恐惧诱发经历的类型和突出性随着年龄的不同而不同,孩子们如何理解他们也可能因年龄而异。目前研究的一个重点是探索如何理解虚构和现实的恐惧原因随着年龄而变化。
与双源和差异想象的帐户相反,以前关于儿童对恐惧的理解的研究表明,虚构的生物在学龄前儿童的恐惧概念中是主要的。 当孩子被要求讲故事时可能会引起主角的恐惧,比起真实的危险更容易地描述涉及虚构生物(如怪物)的事件。 学龄前儿童倾向于产生虚构的原因表明,想象的事物比现实的想法更容易理解,但这一发现并不意味着虚构的原因被更好地理解为比现实的更为可怕。 对儿童对恐惧的理解的一个更敏感的措施需要一个任务,孩子们将虚构和现实的原因标记出来。
据我们所知,只有两项研究使用识别任务来检查儿童对恐惧的理解(Sayfan&Lagattuta,2008,2009)。儿童(3-7岁)听到有关一个遇到虚构或现实的恐惧诱发生物的主角的简短故事。然后,孩子被问到主角是否“害怕或不怕”,如果害怕,她害怕的程度是多少(2008年,第824页,2009年,第1760页)。三岁和五岁的孩子对虚构和现实的原因也同样可怕(Sayfan&Lagattuta,2008) - 与双源视图相符的发现。然而,七岁的孩子将恐惧故事与想象中的事情相比,比那些具有现实意义的恐惧故事更为可怕,这表明虚构的原因随着年龄的增长而变得更初级。
目前的研究采用自由标记反应格式。自由标记方法调查儿童对这些不同类型恐惧故事的自发解释。这种格式比Sayfan和Lagatutta研究中使用的两种替代强制选择响应格式有两个优点。首先,免费标签回应格式避免了人们对学龄前儿童可能夸大了“是”的回应偏见的问题。第二,自由标签回应格式提供了额外的信息 - 具体来说,如果不是恐惧,那么什么情绪会引起孩子的恐惧。此外,这种格式比常用的讲故事方法(例如,Denham&Zoller,1991; Strayer,1986)的生产要求低。因此,我们预计,自由标签的任务将提供一个更敏感的措施,幼儿对恐惧的了解比以前研究中使用的方法更为敏感。
我们研究的主要目的是检查年幼的学龄前儿童是否更有可能将恐惧与虚构的原因,现实原因两者相关联,以及这种认知如何随着年龄而变化。如果孩子的恐惧经验与恐惧的理解相似,那么差异化虚构的帐户就意味着年龄较小的学龄前儿童将更有可能将恐惧的故事标记为虚构的恐惧故事。幼儿对现实恐惧故事的恐慌将很高,并保持相对。
随着年龄的增长,他们的对恐惧故事的恐惧标签预计会很低,并随着年龄的增长而增加,特别是在儿童想象能力增加的较大的学龄期间(Harris,2000)。我们的双源帐户意味着年龄较小的学龄前儿童会以同样的概率将现实和虚构的因素标记为恐惧,并探讨可能的年龄相关变化。据我们所知,目前的研究是首先使用自由标签来追踪儿童(3-7岁)对现实和虚构的恐惧原因的理解的发展。孩子们标榜了四个恐惧故事,其中散布着其他情绪的故事,这些故事被包含在隐藏研究的目的之外,并且表明孩子们可以标注故事主角的情感。每个故事之后,孩子们会被简单地问道:“她感觉如何?
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