Mannerism
Mannerism, Italian Manierismo, (from maniera, “manner,” or “style”), artistic style that predominated in Italy from the end of the High Renaissance in the 1520s to the beginnings of the Baroque style around 1590. The Mannerist style originated in Florence and Rome and spread to northern Italy and, ultimately, to much of central and northern Europe. The term was first used around the end of the 18th century by the Italian archaeologist Luigi Lanzi to define 16th-century artists who were the followers of major Renaissance masters.
Mannerism originated as a reaction to the harmonious classicism and the idealized naturalism of High Renaissance art as practiced by Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Raphael in the first two decades of the 16th century. In the portrayal of the human nude, the standards of formal complexity had been set by Michelangelo, and the norm of idealized beauty by Raphael. But in the work of these artistsrsquo; Mannerist successors, an obsession with style and technique in figural composition often outweighed the importance and meaning of the subject matter. The highest value was instead placed upon the apparently effortless solution of intricate artistic problems, such as the portrayal of the nude in complex and artificial poses.
Mannerist artists evolved a style that is characterized by artificiality and artiness, by a thoroughly self-conscious cultivation of elegance and technical facility, and by a sophisticated indulgence in the bizarre. The figures in Mannerist works frequently have graceful but queerly elongated limbs, small heads, and stylized facial features, while their poses seem difficult or contrived. The deep, linear perspectival space of High Renaissance painting is flattened and obscured so that the figures appear as a decorative arrangement of forms in front of a flat background of indeterminate dimensions. Mannerists sought a continuous refinement of form and concept, pushing exaggeration and contrast to great limits. The results included strange and constricting spatial relationships, jarring juxtapositions of intense and unnatural colours, an emphasis on abnormalities of scale, a sometimes totally irrational mix of classical motifs and other visual references to the antique, and inventive and grotesque pictorial fantasies.
Mannerist elements are already present in some of Raphaelrsquo;s later paintings done in Rome, notably the Transfiguration (1517–20; Vatican Museum). In the period from 1515 to 1524 the Florentine painters Rosso Fiorentino and Jacopo da Pontormo broke away from Renaissance classicism and evolved an expressive, emotionally agitated style in their religious compositions. Among the most notable of these early Mannerist works are Pontormorsquo;s Visdomini altarpiece (1518; Church of S. Michele Visdomini, Florence) and Rossorsquo;s Deposition (1521; Pinacoteca Comunale, Volterra). In the early 1520s Rosso journeyed to Rome, where he joined the artists Giulio Romano, Perino del Vaga, and Polidoro da Caravaggio, who had all been followers of Raphael in his work for the Vatican. The Mannerist style completely emerged in the paintings of these artists as well as in those of Parmigianino. The latterrsquo;s Madonna with the Long Neck (1534; Uffizi, Florence), Rossorsquo;s Dead Christ with Angels (c. 1526; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston), and Pontormorsquo;s Deposition (1525–28; church of Sta. Felicita, Florence) are preeminent works of Mannerismrsquo;s maturity. Michelangelorsquo;s huge fresco The Last Judgment (1533–41; Sistine Chapel, Vatican) shows strong Mannerist tendencies in its agitated composition, formless and indeterminate space, and in the tortured poses and exaggerated musculature of its bunches of nude figures.
The sophisticated Mannerism that developed in Rome before 1527 became the chief formative influence on the styles of a number of younger Italian painters who were active during the 1530s, rsquo;40s, and rsquo;50s. Among them were Giorgio Vasari, Daniele da Volterra, Francesco Salviati, Domenico Beccafumi, Federico Zuccari, Pellegrino Tibaldi, and most notably Bronzino, who was the pupil of Pontormo and who became the most important Mannerist painter in Florence at this time. Meanwhile, Mannerism had begun to spread outside Italy; Rosso took the style to France in 1530 and was followed there two years later by Francesco Primaticcio, who evolved an important French variant of Mannerism in his decorations done at the French royal court at Fontainebleau. Mannerism was transplanted and disseminated throughout central and northern Europe around mid-century through large numbers of engravings of Italian paintings and through the visits of northern artists to Rome to study. Bartholomaeus Spranger, Hendrik Goltzius, and Hans von Aachen became important Mannerist painters. Although the Dutch cities of Haarlem and Amsterdam became centres of the new style, the most ambitious patronage was practiced at Prague by the Emperor Rudolf II; Spranger and others who worked for Rudolf evolved a rather bizarre and exotic Mannerism that occasionally degenerated into the merely grotesque and inexplicable.
In sculpture, the serpentine complexity of Michelangelorsquo;s late sculptures, as epitomized in the sinuously spiraling form of his Victory (1532–34; Palazzo Vecchio, Florence), dominated Mannerist aspirations in this medium. The sculptors Bartolommeo Ammannati, Benvenuto Cellini, and, most importantly, Giambologna became the principal practitioners of Mannerism with their graceful and complexly posed statues.
Mannerism retained a high level of international popularity until the paintings of Annibale Carracci and of Caravaggio around 1600 brought the problematic style to an end and ushered in the long ascendancy of the Baroque. Mannerism was for long afterward looked down upon as a decadent and anarchic style that simply marked a degeneration of High Renaissance artistic production. But in the 20th century the style came to be appreciated anew for its technic
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翻译
从16世纪20年代末到15世纪90年代左右巴洛克风格开始，这种艺术风格在意大利占主导文艺复兴全盛期。 矫揉造作的风格起源于佛罗伦萨和罗马，并蔓延到意大利北部，最终蔓延到中欧和北欧的大部分地区。 18世纪末，意大利考古学家路易吉 bull; 兰齐首次使用这个词来定义16世纪的艺术家，他们是文艺复兴时期大师的追随者。
“风格主义”起源于对和谐的古典主义和文艺复兴全盛期艺术的理想化自然主义的反应，达芬奇、米开朗基罗和拉斐尔在16世纪的前20年就是这样做的。 在描绘人体裸体时，形式复杂性的标准是由米开朗基罗设定的，而理想化的美的标准则是由拉斐尔设定的。 但在这些艺术家的风格主义的后继者的作品中，对风格和技巧的痴迷往往超过了主题的重要性和意义。 相反，最高的价值被放在对复杂的艺术问题的明显不费力的解决上，比如用复杂和人造的姿势描绘裸体。
风格主义艺术家通过对优雅和技巧的彻底自觉的培养，以及对奇异事物的复杂的沉迷，逐渐形成了一种拥有属性的艺术风格。 风格派作品中的人物常有优美而奇特的细长肢体、小小的头颅和风格化的面部特征，而他们的姿势则显得困难或做作。 文艺复兴全盛期深邃的线性透视空间变得平坦而模糊，使人物在不确定尺寸的平面背景下，呈现出一种形式的装饰性排列。 风格主义者追求形式和概念的不断完善，将夸张和对比推向极限。 结果包括奇怪而紧缩的空间关系，强烈而不自然的色彩的不和谐并置，对规模异常的强调，有时完全不合理地混合了古典主题和其他对古董的视觉参考，以及创造性和怪诞的图画幻想。
风格主义的元素已经出现在拉斐尔后期在罗马完成的一些画作中，尤其是变容术(1517-20; 梵蒂冈博物馆)。 在1515年至1524年期间，佛罗伦萨画家的罗索bull;菲奥伦蒂诺和蓬托莫摆脱了文艺复兴时期的古典主义，在他们的宗教作品中形成了一种表现力强、情绪激动的风格。 这些早期矫饰主义作品中最著名的是庞托莫的 visdomini altarpiece (1518; church of s. michele visdomini，florence)和罗索的证词(1521; pinacoteca comunale，volterra)。 在16世纪20年代早期，罗索前往罗马，在那里他加入了艺术家朱利奥 bull; 罗马诺，佩里诺 bull; 德尔 bull; 瓦加，和波利多罗 bull; 达 bull; 卡拉瓦乔，他们都是拉斐尔在梵蒂冈的追随者。 矫揉造作的风格完全出现在这些艺术家的画作中，也出现在帕尔马吉亚尼诺的画作中。 后者的《长颈圣母像》(madonna with the long neck，1534; uffizi，florence) ，rossorsquo;s dead christ with angels (约1526; museum of fine arts，boston) ，以及 pontormorsquo;s deposition (1525-28; church of sta)。 费利西塔，佛罗伦萨)是优秀的作品，礼仪主义的成熟。 米开朗基罗的巨幅壁画《最后的审判》(1533-41; 西斯廷教堂，梵蒂冈)展示了强烈的矫揉造作的倾向，在其躁动的构图，无形的和不确定的空间，以及扭曲的姿态和夸张的肌肉组织的一串串裸体人物。
1527年前在罗马发展起来的复杂的风格主义，成为一些活跃于15世纪30年代，40年代和50年代的年轻意大利画家风格形成的主要影响。 其中包括乔治bull;瓦萨里(giorgio vasari)、达尼埃莱bull;达bull;沃尔泰拉、弗朗西斯科bull;德bull;罗西、多梅尼科bull;贝卡佛米(domenico beccaumi)、费德里科bull;祖卡里bull;佩莱格里诺bull;蒂巴尔迪(pellegrino tibaldi) ，以及最著名的布朗奇诺。布朗奇诺是蓬托莫的学生，也是当时佛罗伦萨最重要的修辞派画家。 与此同时，言谈举止开始在意大利以外传播，罗索于1530年把这种风格带到法国，两年后又被弗兰西斯科bull;普列马提乔追随，他在枫丹白露的法国皇家宫廷所做的装饰中演变出一种重要的言谈举止的法国变体。 大约在本世纪中叶，通过大量的意大利绘画版画，以及通过北方艺术家到罗马学习，言谈举止被移植和传播到整个中欧和北欧。 巴托洛梅斯 bull; 斯佩兰格、哥尔齐乌斯和汉斯 bull; 冯 bull; 亚琛成为了重要的风格主义画家。 尽管荷兰城市哈勒姆和阿姆斯特丹成为新风格的中心，但最雄心勃勃的赞助计划，是由鲁道夫二世在布拉格实施的; 斯帕兰格和其他为鲁道夫工作的人，发展出一种相当奇异的异国风情，偶尔堕落成仅仅是怪诞和无法解释的。
在雕塑方面，米开朗基罗晚期雕塑的蛇形复杂性，体现在他的胜利的蜿蜒螺旋形式(1532-34; palazzo vecchio，佛罗伦萨) ，在这个媒介中主导了风格主义的愿望。 雕塑家巴托罗梅奥bull;阿曼纳蒂、本韦努托bull;切利尼、以及最重要的是，吉安博洛尼亚以其姿态优美、造型复杂的雕像成为举止艺术的主要实践者。
直到1600年左右，安尼巴莱bull;卡拉齐和卡拉瓦乔的绘画结束了这种有问题的风格，并开始了巴洛克风格的长期统治，矫揉造作的风格才在国际上保持了很高的知名度。 言谈举止在很长一段时间里都被看作是一种颓废和无政府主义的风格，只不过标志着文艺复兴全盛期艺术作品的堕落。 但在20世纪，这种风格因其技术上的大胆、优雅和精美而再次受到人们的欣赏。 矫揉造作的精神强度、复杂的智力美学、形式上的实验性、以及表现在其中的持续的心理焦虑，使得这种风格对现代气质具有吸引力和趣味性，从中可以看出它与现代表现主义艺术倾向之间的密切关系。
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