Successful bilingual development involving a minority language is often challenging in situations where the majority language dominates communication not only provincially and nationally but also internationally. Bilingual education in China generally refers to schooling in which minority and majority languages are used as teaching media, or taught to any extent, a rather loose term compared with commonly cited definitions in the research literature.
Ethnic minority bilingual education has been a hot issue since the appearance of bilingual phenomenon in ethnic minority group. There search in this period mainly in the form of subject theory, dividing types of bilingual education from many different angles, and evaluated distinctive features of bilingual teaching and bilingual education from aspects of teaching object, method and content. The most important content for bilingual education is teaching of Chinese mandarin.
XUAR, in Chinas far northwest, is the largest geographic region covering 1.65 million square kilometres. It borders eight countries: Kazakhstan, Kyrghizstan, Tajikistan, Russia, the Republic of Mongolia, India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan and three provinces/regions in China: Gansu, Qinghai and Tibet. XUAR is multi-ethnic, with 13 major ethnic nationalities and a population of 19.3 million. Uyghur are the largest group (8.8 million) and the Han second (7.7 million). XUAR is a multilingual and multicultural society: three nationalities use Chinese (Han, Hui and Manchu); five speak Turkic languages (Uyghur, Kazak, Kirghiz, Uzbek and Tatar)
Uyghur is the major regional language used in XUAR and serves as a lingua franca among other ethnic groups. The languages of the media are Uyghur, Putonghua and Kazak. At the district level11. The political structure of XUAR is the same as all other provinces and regions. At the top is the Xinjiang Regional Politburo Standing Committee under the direct control of the Centre government. Under it they are the Regional Party Congress, the Military Affairs Commission, the Regional Peoples Congress, and the Regional Government. Within the regional government there are three administrative levels, duplicating the central system in Beijing: regional, districts, and counties/cities. The regional government has direct control over two cities, eight districts, and five autonomous prefectures. There are 79 counties/cities and six autonomous counties below the districts and the prefectures. Among them, 35 are border counties.View all notes and below, six languages are used: Uyghur, Putonghua, Kazak, Mongolian, Kirghiz and Xibo.
The education system has reflected this diversity with a system of separate schooling based on mother tongue instruction since 1949. Six languages are currently used as medium of instructions in primary and secondary education: Putonghua, Uyghur, Kazak, Mongolian, Xibo and Kirghiz. More than 50% of students attend minzu (minority) primary schools which use one of the five minority languages as the medium of instruction. There are also hanzu (Chinese) schools, with Putonghua as the medium of instruction. The hanzu schools began in the 1950s, but increased dramatically in the 1960s, to cater for the large immigration of Han Chinese into Xinjiang. The medium of instruction is Putonghua in these schools, despite the migrants themselves coming from different dialect regions. Enrolments in these schools are mainly Han children although in the past decade more ethnic students have enrolled.
In recent years a third type of school has developed, joint Chinese/ minority schools, called min han hexiao. These schools are either Han schools in which there are minority classes, minority ethnic schools with Han classes or schools with mixed nationality classes. The national government policy is now that by 2008 all Chinese and ethnic schools will be min han hexiao, merged schools. The ostensible reason for this shift to min han hexiao is the perceived failure of separate minority schooling. There are massive school drop out rates, poor educational outcomes and low levels of proficiency in Chinese for students in the minzu schools.
The participation of minority students in senior high schools and university is not satisfactory. In 2005 the numbers of minzu senior high schools represented one-tenth of the number of students in minzu primary schools with only 119,958 students in senior high schools. The participation of Uyghurs and Kazakhs in tertiary education has been declining. The reasons for this are partly financial: although the nine-year basic education from primary to junior high school is free, there is charge for senior high school and not many Uyghurs in rural areas continue to senior high school.
A second reason is the step back from previous policies of positive discrimination for minority groups in university entry. Uyghur students from Uyghur schools have traditionally been permitted to pass examinations with lower marks when entering a university because of the government preferential policy, only having to compete with their peers, not with Han students in this respect. While the examination procedure of min kao min, minority students sitting for examinations in their mother tongue, has not changed, the examination papers have. The ethnic examination papers once designed independently by Uyghur examiners became translated papers from the Chinese examination papers in the late 1990s. A minimum requirement was also set for mathematics, physics and chemistry. That means that Han and Uyghur students sit for the same paper in different languages. The results reported in the media show that students educated through mother tongue education do comparatively badly in these three subjects: the minimum score for mathematics
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Successful bilingual development involving a minority language is often challenging in situations where the majority language dominates communication not only provincially and nationally but also internationally. Bilingual education in China generally refers to schooling in which minority and majority languages are used as teaching media, or taught to any extent, a rather loose term compared with commonly cited definitions in the research literature.
Ethnic minority bilingual education has been a hot issue since the appearance of bilingual phenomenon in ethnic minority group. There search in this period mainly in the form of subject theory, dividing types of bilingual education from many different angles, and evaluated distinctive features of bilingual teaching and bilingual education from aspects of teaching object, method and content. The most important content for bilingual education is teaching of Chinese mandarin.
XUAR, in Chinas far northwest, is the largest geographic region covering 1.65 million square kilometres. It borders eight countries: Kazakhstan, Kyrghizstan, Tajikistan, Russia, the Republic of Mongolia, India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan and three provinces/regions in China: Gansu, Qinghai and Tibet. XUAR is multi-ethnic, with 13 major ethnic nationalities and a population of 19.3 million. Uyghur are the largest group (8.8 million) and the Han second (7.7 million). XUAR is a multilingual and multicultural society: three nationalities use Chinese (Han, Hui and Manchu); five speak Turkic languages (Uyghur, Kazak, Kirghiz, Uzbek and Tatar)
Uyghur is the major regional language used in XUAR and serves as a lingua franca among other ethnic groups. The languages of the media are Uyghur, Putonghua and Kazak. At the district level11. The political structure of XUAR is the same as all other provinces and regions. At the top is the Xinjiang Regional Politburo Standing Committee under the direct control of the Centre government. Under it they are the Regional Party Congress, the Military Affairs Commission, the Regional Peoples Congress, and the Regional Government. Within the regional government there are three administrative levels, duplicating the central system in Beijing: regional, districts, and counties/cities. The regional government has direct control over two cities, eight districts, and five autonomous prefectures. There are 79 counties/cities and six autonomous counties below the districts and the prefectures. Among them, 35 are border counties.View all notes and below, six languages are used: Uyghur, Putonghua, Kazak, Mongolian, Kirghiz and Xibo.
The education system has reflected this diversity with a system of separate schooling based on mother tongue instruction since 1949. Six languages are currently used as medium of instructions in primary and secondary education: Putonghua, Uyghur, Kazak, Mongolian, Xibo and Kirghiz. More than 50% of students attend minzu (minority) primary schools which use one of the five minority languages as the medium of instruction. There are also hanzu (Chinese) schools, with Putonghua as the medium of instruction. The hanzu schools began in the 1950s, but increased dramatically in the 1960s, to cater for the large immigration of Han Chinese into Xinjiang. The medium of instruction is Putonghua in these schools, despite the migrants themselves coming from different dialect regions. Enrolments in these schools are mainly Han children although in the past decade more ethnic students have enrolled.
In recent years a third type of school has developed, joint Chinese/ minority schools, called min han hexiao. These schools are either Han schools in which there are minority classes, minority ethnic schools with Han classes or schools with mixed nationality classes. The national government policy is now that by 2008 all Chinese and ethnic schools will be min han hexiao, merged schools. The ostensible reason for this shift to min han hexiao is the perceived failure of separate minority schooling. There are massive school drop out rates, poor educational outcomes and low levels of proficiency in Chinese for students in the minzu schools.
The participation of minority students in senior high schools and university is not satisfactory. In 2005 the numbers of minzu senior high schools represented one-tenth of the number of students in minzu primary schools with only 119,958 students in senior high schools. The participation of Uyghurs and Kazakhs in tertiary education has been declining. The reasons for this are partly financial: although the nine-year basic education from primary to junior high school is free, there is charge for senior high school and not many Uyghurs in rural areas continue to senior high school.
A second reason is the step back from previous policies of positive discrimination for minority groups in university entry. Uyghur students from Uyghur schools have traditionally been permitted to pass examinations with lower marks when entering a university because of the government preferential policy, only having to compete with their peers, not with Han students in this respect. While the examination procedure of min kao min, minority students sitting for examinations in their mother tongue, has not changed, the examination papers have. The ethnic examination papers once designed independently by Uyghur examiners became translated papers from the Chinese examination papers in the late 1990s. A minimum requirement was also set for mathematics, physics and chemistry. That means that Han and Uyghur students sit for the same paper in different languages. The results reported in the media show that students educated through mother tongue education do comparatively badly in these three subjects: the minimum score for mathematics
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