How to Do Things with Words
J. L. AUSTIN
LECTURE VIII
N embarking on a programme of finding a list of explicit performative verbs, it seemed that we were going to find it not always easy to distinguish per- formative utterances from constative, and it therefore seemed expedient to go farther back for a while to fundamentals—to consider from the ground up how many senses there are in which to say something is to do some- thing, or in saying something we do something, and even by saying something we do something. And we began by distinguishing a whole group of senses of doing some- thing which are all included together when we say, what is obvious, that to say something is in the full normal sense to do something—which includes the utterance of certain noises, the utterance of certain words in a certain construction, and the utterance of them with a certain meaning in the favourite philosophical sense of that word, i.e. with a certain sense and with a certain reference. The act of saying something in this full normal sense
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I call, i.e. dub, the performance of a locutionary act, and the study of utterances thus far and in these respects the study of locutions, or of the full units of speech. Our interest in the locutionary act is, of course, principally to make quite plain what it is, in order to distinguish it from other acts with which we are going to be primarily
How to do things with Words 95
concerned. Let me add merely that, of course, a great many further refinements would be possible and neces- sary if we were to discuss it for its own sake—refinements of very great importance not merely to philosophers but to, say, grammarians and phoneticians.
We had made three rough distinctions between the phonetic act, the phatic act, and the rhetic act. The pho- netic act is merely the act of uttering certain noises. The phatic act is the uttering of certain vocables or words,
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- noises of certain types, belonging to and as belonging to, a certain vocabulary, conforming to and as conforming to a certain grammar. The rhetic act is the performance of an act of using those vocables with a certain more-or-less definite sense and reference. Thus He said 'The cat is on the mat', reports a phatic act, whereas He said that the cat was on the mat reports a rhetic act. A similar contrast is illustrated by the pairs:
He said 'I shall be there', He said he would be there;
He said 'Get out' , He told me to get out;
He said 'Is it in Oxford or Cambridge ?' ; He asked whether it was in Oxford or Cambridge.
To pursue this for its own sake beyond our immediate requirements, I shall mention some general points worth remembering:
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- Obviously, to perform a phatic I must perform a phonetic act, or, if you like, in performing one I am performing the other (not, however, that phatic acts are
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96 Horn to do things with Words
a sub-class of phonetic acts—as belonging to): but the converse is not true, for if a monkey makes a noise indistinguishable from go it is still not a phatic act.
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- Obviously in the definition of the phatic act two things were lumped together: vocabulary and grammar. So we have not assigned a special name to the person who utters, for example, cat thoroughly the if or the slithy toves did gyre. Yet a further point arising is the intonation as well as grammar and vocabulary.
- The phatic act, however, like the phonetic, is essentially mimicable, reproducible (including intonation, winks, gestures, amp;c). One can mimic not merely the statement in quotation marks She has lovely hair, but also the more complex fact that he said it like this: She has lovely hair (shrugs).
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This is the inverted commas use of said as we get it in novels: every utterance can be just reproduced in inverted commas, or in inverted commas with said he or, more often, said she, amp;c, after it.
But the rhetic act is the one we report, in the case of assertions, by saying He said that the cat was on the mat, He said he would go, He said I was to go (his words were You are to go). This is the so-called indirect speech. If the sense or reference is not being taken as clear, then the whole or part is to be in quotation marks. Thus I might say: He said I was to go to the 'minister', but he did not say which minister or I said that he was behav- ing badly and he replied that 'the higher you get the fewer'. We cannot, however, always use said that
How to do things with Words 97
easily: we would say told to, advise to, amp;c, if he used the imperative mood, or such equivalent phrases as said I was to, said I should, amp;c. Compare such phrases as bade me welcome and extended his apologies.
I add one further point about the rhetic act: of course sense and reference (naming and referring) themselves are here ancillary acts performed in performing the rhetic act. Thus we may say I meant by 'bank' ... and we say by 'he' I was referring to. . .. Can we perform a rhetic act without referring or without naming? In general it would seem that the answer is that we cannot, but there are puzzling cases. What is the reference in all triangles have three sides ? Correspondingly, it is clear that we can perform a phatic act which is not a rhetic act, though not conversely. Thus we may repeat someone elses remark or mumble over some sentence, or we may read a Latin sentence without knowing the meaning of the words.
The question when one pheme or one rheme is the same as another, whether in the type or token sense, and the question what is one singl
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外文翻译
How to do things with words第八章
J. L. AUSTIN
在总结一个明确的施为动词列表的时候,我们可能会发现并不容易区分施为话语和陈述话语,为了走得更远我们似乎应该适当地回到基础层面——重新开始考虑说话能做什么,或者边说话边做了什么,甚至我们通过说话能做什么。我们开始的时候区分了一整组“做某事”的意义,在我们说话的时候全都包含在内,显然,在通常的意义上,说了什么就是做了什么——其中包括一些噪音的表达,在某种结构中某些词的表达,以及那个词在哲学意义上具有某种特定“意义”的表述,即具有一定的意义和一定的参照。通常意义上我所说的言语行为,也就是配音,是说话行为的表现,是迄今为止对话语的研究以及在这些方面对话语的研究,或整个言语单元的研究。当然,我们关心说话行为主要是为了明确说明它是什么,把它与我们将会重点关注的其他行为区分开来。补充一点,当然,如果我们是就说话行为本身而讨论它,我们很有可能且很有必要获得很大的进步——不仅对哲学家而言,而且对语法学家和语音学家而言都非常重要的进步。
我们对发声行为,发音行为和表意行为这三种行为做了粗略的区分。发声行为仅仅是发出某些噪音的行为。发音行为是某些字词外壳或词的发音,即某些类型的噪音,属于某种词汇,符合某种语法。表意行为就是使用那些字词的行为的表达,或多或少地会涉及到意义和参照。因此,“他说lsquo;猫在垫子上rsquo;” 是一种发音行为,而“他说,猫在垫子上”是一种表意行为。这些例子有类似的对比:
“他说lsquo;我会在那里rsquo;”,“他说他会在那里”;
“他说lsquo;出去rsquo;”,“他让我出去”;
“他说lsquo;在牛津还是在剑桥?rsquo;”,“他问在牛津还是在剑桥”。
从说话行为本身出发,为了超过我们的直接需求,我要提一些值得记住的一般要点:
(1)显然,为了做出发音行为我必须先做一个发声行为,假如你喜欢,你在做一个行为的同时我在做另一个(但不是,发音行为是发声行为的一个子类,就像所属关系那样):但相反是不正确的,因为如果一只猴子发出的噪音与“去”不可区分,那么它仍然不是一种发音行为。
(2)显然在发声行为的定义中两件事情混在一起了:词汇和语法。所以我们没有给说话的人分配一个特殊的名字,比如,“猫彻底hellip;hellip;如果hellip;hellip;”或者“斯通西斯做了陀螺”。还有一点是语调以及语法和词汇。
(3)发音行为,像发声行为一样,基本上是模仿的,可重复的(包括语调,眨眼,手势等)。人们不仅可以模仿引号“她有可爱的头发”中的陈述,还可以模仿他这样说的更复杂的事实:“她有可爱的头发”(耸耸肩)。
这就是我们在小说中使用的“说”的“引号”,每一句话都可以用引号引起来,或者更普遍的,在“他说”或者“她说”的后面使用逗号和引号。
但是,我们说的是一种表意行为,在说明的情况下,通过说“他说猫在垫子上”,“他说他会去”,“他说我要去” (他的话是“你要去”)。这就是所谓的“间接引语”。如果大家认为意义或引用不是明确的,那么整个或部分应该用引号引起来。所以我应该说“他说我要去找lsquo;部长rsquo;但是他没有说哪个部长”,或者“我说他表现不好,他回答说lsquo;表现得越好得到的越少rsquo;”。但是,我们不能总是简单地用“说”:我们还可以用“告诉”,“建议”等等,如果他是急切的心情,或使用差不多的短语如“说我是”,“说我应该”等。将这些短语与“欢迎我”和“延长他的道歉”的短语进行比较。
关于表意行为我再增加一点:当然,意义和参照(命名和提及)它们本身在这里是表意行为的附属表达行为。因此,我们可以说“我的意思是lsquo;银行rsquo;”,我们也可以说“lsquo;他rsquo;是我所指的”。我们在展现表意行为是可以离开命名和提及吗?一般来说,答案似乎是不能,但也有令人费解的情况。“所有三角形都有三条边”的参照是什么?相应地,很明显,尽管不是相反的情况,我们也可以做出一种不是表意行为的发音行为。因此,我们可以重复别人的评论或者某一个含糊的句子,或者我们也可以在不知道这些词的意思的情况下读一个拉丁语的句子。
当一个形位或者一个述位与另一个相同,不管是“符号”意义还是“暗号”意义的问题,和一个单独的形位或者述位是什么的问题,在这里并不重要。但是,当然重要的是要记住同样的形位(相同类型的标记)可用于不同的意义或参照的话语场合,因此变成一个不同的述位。当不同的形位与相同的意义和参照共同使用时,我们可能会谈到流变等价的行为(在某种意义上“同样的陈述”)但不是相同的述位或者表意行为(这是另一种含义相同的陈述,涉及使用相同的词语)。
形位是语言的一个单位,它典型缺点是废话——没有任何意义。而述位是话语的一个单位;它的典型缺点是模糊无效或不确定的。
尽管这些问题引起了很多人的关心,但他们迄今为止,并没有对我们关于陈叙话语与施行话语相对立的问题提出过任何建议,例如,关于话语“他将要收费”,这样的表达方法基本是可行的,在发表这个话语时,我们要说的完全清楚,可以区别于目前所有的意义,但并不清楚在发表言论时我是否正在进行警告行为。也许我的意思是“他将要收费”还是“关门”显而易见,但并不清楚这是在陈述一件事还是一个警告。
一般来说,进行一种言语行为,我们也许会说话,也可以自行执行言外行为,正如我提出的那样。为了确定如何执行言外行为,我们必须确定我们使用何种方式:
问问题还是回答问题,
提供信息,保证或是警告,
宣布一个判决还是目的,
读一个句子,
预约,上诉或是批评,
作出鉴定或给予说明,还有许许多多类似的。(我不是在暗示这是一个明确定义的分类。)关于eo ipso没有什么神秘的。问题在于针对“我们以什么样的方式使用它”这种模糊不清的表达有不同意义的数量,这甚至可以涉及一种说话行为,我们进一步理解可以在一分钟内进入言外行为。当我们在完成一个说话行为的时候,我们使用言语:但在特定的场合我们究竟怎样才能正确使用它?因为我们使用言语的功能和方式非常多,在某种意义上它会使我们的行为有很大的不同——意义(B),使用哪种形式、哪种意义取决于我们“使用”它的场合。在我们通知、建议、命令、发表严正声明或者只是说明一个模糊的意图时,都有很大的不同。这些问题也许会有一点渗透,语法也会有一些混淆(见上文),但是我们不断地辨析它们,在这种条件下一个词都会变成一个问题。
我把这种新的意义上的行为表现解释为“言外行为”,即通过说话能做什么事,而不是说了什么事;为了研究“言外之力”我将参考不同类型的语言功能学说。
长久以来,哲学家们一直忽视这项研究,把所有的问题都看作“说话运用”,事实上,我在讲义中提到的“描述性谬误”就是由此而来的,将前一种问题误认为是后一种问题。诚然,我们现在正在摆脱这一点,这些年来,人们越来越清楚地意识到话语非常重要,所使用的词汇在某种程度上要由“语境”来“解释”,在语境交际中,这些词汇实际上已经讲过了。然而,也许我们太倾向于用“词汇的含义”来做解释。无可否认,我们也可以用“意义”来表达言外之力——“他的意思是一个命令”。
此外,我们在这里举例说明表达的不同用法,“语言的使用”或者“句子的使用”——“使用”是一个含糊而且很宽泛的词,就像“意义”一样,已经惯用于嘲讽,但是它的代替词“使用”不是一个更好的例子。就说话行为而言,我们可能会在特定的场合完全弄清“句子的使用”,但没有触及它在言外行为意义上的使用。在对这种言外行为的概念进行进一步细化之前,让我们将言语、言外行为与第三种行为进行对比。
(C)还有进一步的意义(C)来执行一个言外行为,并在其中进行言外行为,也可能是执行另一种行为。说什么,或观众,演讲者或其他人的行为,经常会在感受,想法上产生一定的后果,这甚至是很正常的,可以通过设计,意图或制作它们的目的来完成,考虑到这一点,我们可能会说,说话者已经在被提及的术语中展现了一个行为(C.a),只有倾斜,或者甚至(C.b),根本不用于言语或言语行为的表现。
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